travel motivation example

Motivation for Travel | Theory: Plog, Maslow, Hudman, Krippendorf, Nickerson, General Theory

• Post last modified: 13 January 2023
• Reading time: 33 mins read
• Post category: Tourism

What is Motivation for Travel?

Travelers are motivated to satisfy a need, and they have a perception of what will satisfy their needs. At the same time, travelers have a perception of the attractions of the destination and whether the attractions satisfy their needs. If both sides are agreed, travelers are motivated to visit that destination.

Table of Content

• 1 What is Motivation for Travel?
• 2 Travel Motivations
• 3.1 Economic Capacity
• 3.2 Spare Time
• 3.3 Psychological Factors
• 3.4 Group, Family and Social Atmosphere
• 3.5 Relaxation and Health
• 3.6 Exploration and Risk-Taking
• 3.7 Spirit and the Appreciation of Beauty
• 3.8 Social Interaction
• 3.9 Business Affairs and Official Matters
• 3.10 Family Responsibilities
• 4 Plog Theory
• 5.1 Psychological Needs
• 5.2 Safety Needs
• 5.3 Personal Interaction Needs
• 5.4 Esteem Needs
• 5.5 Self Actualization Needs
• 6.3 Pleasure
• 6.4 Religious and Spiritual Appreciation
• 6.5 Professional and Business
• 6.6 Friends and Relatives
• 6.7 Roots Syndrome
• 7.1 Recuperation and Regeneration
• 7.2 Compensation and Social Integration
• 7.4 Communication
• 7.5 Broadening of the Mind
• 7.6 Freedom and Self-Determination
• 7.7 Self Realization
• 7.8 Happiness
• 8.1 Physiological Needs
• 8.2 Safety Needs
• 8.3 Personal Interaction Needs
• 8.4 Esteem Needs
• 8.5 Self Actualization Needs
• 9.1 Travel Personality
• 9.2 General Personality

The Definition of “Motivation” A motivation is a wish that prompts people to take action, work hard to achieve a goal, and satisfy a certain kind of need. For example, when a person is hungry and there is a need to appease his or her hunger, a motivation to search for food is formed.

Therefore, people’s activities of all kinds are driven by their motivations, and they govern people’s actions.

Travel Motivations

• Why do we go travelling?
• Why do we choose to travel to a certain place?
• Why do we participate in a certain travel activity?

These are essentially questions about tourists’ travel motivations. Travel motivations directly spur people’s travel activities.

A travel motivation is the psychological need of a person to participate in travel activities, and this kind of need will directly promote travel motivation; if you have motivation, a travel action will result.

However, in real life, the process from the formation of a travel motivation to the occurrence of an actual journey, action is a complex one.

During this process, when people have a need to travel, they must also have corresponding individual factors and external environmental conditions, such as physical fitness, financial status, weather and transport, etc Factors that Influence Individual Travel Motivations

10 Motivation for Travel

These are the motivation for travel which discussed below:

Economic Capacity

Psychological factors, group, family and social atmosphere, relaxation and health, exploration and risk-taking, spirit and the appreciation of beauty, social interaction, business affairs and official matters, family responsibilities.

Economic capacity is the basis on which all needs are formed. Because travel is a kind of consumer behavior, the ability to pay the various types of charges involved is of course necessary. When a person’s economic income can only support his or her basic living needs, he or she will not form a motivation to go traveling.

As an economy develops, in countries and regions where citizens’ income increases, the tourism industry becomes more developed, and the number of people who go traveling climbs, or drops when the opposite applies.

Spare time refers to the time that people can freely allocate to taking part in pastimes and entertainment or anything else they enjoy participating in after their daily work, study, living, and other compulsory time commitments.

Therefore, spare time is an important condition for the realization of travel activities. In developed countries, labor protection laws are relatively strong and workers have statutory holidays, both of which ensure that people can form travel motivations.

Travel motivations are a form of individual psychological activity and are inevitably influenced by various aspects such as individual interests, hobbies, profession, attitude to life, understanding of the surrounding environment, level of education, and family.

Social Factors that Influence Travel Motivations. It is only when the economy of a country or region is developed that it will have enough resources to improve and construct travel facilities, develop tourist attractions and promote transport development.

Road transport facilities, accommodation, catering, and service standards at a destination are important factors in the tourists’ choice of destination, and also affect their formation of travel motivations to a large degree, especially for tourists with relatively high hospitality expectations.

Group or social pressure can also influence people’s travel motivations. For example, travel activities organized by enterprises, or travel awards, etc. encourage people to form their own travel motivations involuntarily, and travel activities subsequently take place.

Social surroundings can also influence people’s travel motivations. Colleagues, friends, and relatives travel behavior and travel experiences can always influence others, or lead to the formation of comparative psychology, making people form identical travel motivations, and leading to the formation of a kind of imitative travel behavior.

People who have stressful or monotonous daily lives or work participate in travel activities such as relaxing travel and recuperation holidays in order to relax and loosen up, as well as keeping healthy and finding entertainment.

For example, natural scenery, historical monuments, parks, the seaside, hot springs recuperation areas, etc., are all tourist choices for this type of travel motivation.

Travelers who are curious, knowledgeable, and adventurous, such as the Himalayas climbing parties and North Pole explorers.

For travelers with this kind of motivation, their travel activities are mainly directed at distinctive, beautiful things and phenomena in the natural world, as well as to visiting museums, exhibition halls, and famous tourist attractions, and participating in various types of theme-based travel activities, etc.

People all go traveling to meet friends and relatives, to find their roots and search for their ancestors, and to get to know new friends, etc.

Travelers in this category require that the personal relationships they maintain in the course of their travels be friendly, cordial, and warm-hearted, and want to care for Religious Faith People who have a religious faith go traveling to participate in religious activities and take part in religious studies, and those who travel driven by religious faith motivations do so mainly to satisfy their own spiritual needs. Religious travel is divided into two categories: pilgrimages, and missionary work.

People go traveling for various types of business and official activities, such as special trips to buy goods or diversions to a certain place to go traveling; business trips to a certain place to take part in academic observation, communicate, etc.

Travel activities participated in by groups, government delegations, and business associations, etc., that go to a certain place for discussions, etc.

Because they are busy at work, people will normally neglect to take care of and look after their family members and friends. For these people, they go traveling to satisfy a responsibility or obligation to their parents, wife or children, or to relax and have fun with friends.

Therefore, every summer, the number of family-based tour groups will increase greatly.

Plog Theory

Based on Plog’s theory, travel motivations are related to a very narrow spectrum of psychographic types:

• Educational and cultural motives to learn and to increase the ability for appreciation, scientific research; trips with expert leaders or lecturers.
• Study of genealogy such as visits to their ancestor’s homeland to trace their root.
• Search for the exotic, such as the North Pole and the South Pole, the Amazon, etc.
• Satisfaction and sense of power and freedom such as anonymity, flying, control, sea travel, fast trains.
• Gambling – Las Vegas, Atlantic City, Monte Carlo, Bahamas, Puerto Rico.
• Development of new friendships in foreign places.
• Sharpening perspectives such as to awaken one’s senses, heighten awareness.
• Political campaigns, supporting candidates, government hearings.
• Vacation or second homes and condominiums Near-Allocentric Motivations.
• Religious pilgrimages or inspiration.
• Participation in sports events and sports activities.
• Travel as a challenge, sometimes a test of endurance such as exploring mountain climbing, hiking, diving.
• Business travel, conference, meeting and conventions.
• Theatre tours, special entertainment.
• A chance to try a new lifestyle Midcentric Motivations.
• Relaxation and pleasure travel just for plain fun and enjoyment.
• Satisfying personal contacts with friends and relatives.
• For health reasons such as to change the climate, sunshine, spas, medical treatment.
• The need for a change for a period of time.
• An opportunity to escape from life’s problems.
• The real or imagined glamour of the destination.
• Appreciation of beauty such as national and state parks, forests, lakes, wilderness areas, canoe trips, ocean shores.
• Sensual indulgence such as food, comforts, luxuries for the body, romance, sexual.
• Enjoyment, rest, relaxation.
• Shopping such as souvenirs, gifts, expensive possessions like cameras, jewels, furs, cars, antiques, art.
• Joys of transportation – cruise ships, gourmet meals, buffets, comfortable trains, buses, airplanes, autos.
• Pleasure of pre- and post-travel includes planning the trip, anticipation, learning, dreaming. family or personal matters.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow (1971) distinguished five different levels of psychological needs ranging from physiological needs to self-actualization. According to his theory, the satisfaction of people’s basic needs is a prerequisite for the satisfaction of the higher needs.

Maslow argues that all behavior is motivated by psychological needs, for behavior serves to fulfill those needs physiological needs:

Psychological Needs

Safety needs, personal interaction needs, esteem needs, self actualization needs.

These are needs required by humans to sustain their existence and prolong their lives and are the minimum basic needs, including needs relating to food, water, oxygen, sleep, a place to live and warmth, as well as clothing, food, shelter, mobility, sex, and other psychological functions.

If these needs cannot be fulfilled, human existence becomes a problem.

These are needs that represent human desires to protect their own bodies and minds from injury and to guarantee safety and stability. For example, needs relating to health, a safe and orderly environment, a stable career, and the avoidance of unforeseen accidents.

When a person’s physiological needs have been fulfilled, he or she will want to fulfill such safety needs.

Personal interaction needs include the need for love and a sense of belonging. The need for love refers to the fact that people all hope to achieve harmonious relationships with friends and colleagues or to maintain friendships; everyone wants to love others and be loved.

In addition, the need for a sense of belonging refers to the fact that people all want to have a sense of belonging, and want to gain the acceptance of a certain group and to be included and valued by it, as well as for its members to care for and look after each other.

These are human desires to gain other people’s respect, a satisfactory status, due human rights, reputation, and prestige, and to realize a certain social position.

These are human desires for the need to give full play to one’s own potential and to realize one’s own ideas and aspirations, including the seeking of knowledge, the appreciation of beauty, creativity, achievements, etc.

Maslow considered self-realization to be mankind’s highest level of needs, which signify a full, enthusiastic, wholehearted experience of life.

Hudman’s Motivators of Travel

These are some hudman’s motivators of travel theories :

Religious and Spiritual Appreciation

Professional and business, friends and relatives, roots syndrome.

People travel for improving their health. They would go for leisure and medical treatment to relax and entertain themselves. Natural landscapes, historical sites, coastline, spas, and resorts are the destinations of these travelers.

Curiosity People travel because of curiosity, inquisitiveness, and adventure. Politics, culture, public figures, physical features, and disaster would attract these travelers.

People travel for sports to release their pressure and fantasize about being an athlete. Being a spectator could experience the atmosphere of the competition, and have social contributions such as connecting with other audiences and meet new friends.

Vocation relates to pleasure because it could give routine life a break. People would try new things and participate in activities that would make them feel happy, such as visiting art museums, watching operas and gambling, etc.

People travel for spiritual needs. They visit religious headquarters usually because of religious reasons. In this way, they could have a stronger belief in their religion. On the other hand, many travelers gain satisfaction by the appreciation of natural landscapes, art performances, and visiting museums and historical sites.

People travel for business such as scientific expeditions, business meetings, conventions and education.

People travel because they want to visit their friends and relatives; it shows their care of family and friends.

People travel to trace the root of their family or the culture of their homeland. Pedigree research and hometown exploration are the common activities of these travelers.

Many people travel for gaining respect from others and a satisfying social status because one with plenty of travel experience and knowledge of different countries is usually admired by others.

Krippendorff Reasons for Travel

Research on reasons for travel uncovers an endless list of travel motivations. Apparently, people want to ‘switch off, relax’. They want to ‘get away from everyday life, ‘recover strength’ and ‘experience nature’ ( Krippendorff, 1997 ). Krippendorff (1997) distinguishes eight reasons for travel:

Recuperation and Regeneration

Compensation and social integration, communication, broadening of the mind, freedom and self-determination, self realization.

People get tired during working weeks, and use vacations to replenish their ‘bodily and mental strength’.

Tourism compensates for everyday social failure by presenting another world next to everyday dreariness.

Everyday life contains more and more aspects of stress; people want to escape from this.

Traveling abroad gives people a chance to gain human warmth, to establish contact with other people.

People want to satisfy their interests in other cultures and nature.

Tourists are in a position to largely make up their own rules; they are free from any obligations.

An unfamiliar and strange environment offers a great chance for investigating and enhancing the Self.

Vacations are highly associated with joy and pleasure, so happiness becomes a reason for embarking on a holiday trip.

Travel is a complex social action, and tourists use to travel to satisfy their own various needs. At the same time, under the influence of external environmental conditions, motivations always change as the environment changes.

Therefore, the same tourist’s motivations for going on different trips will differ from each other. At the same time, a lot of travel motivations do not just involve one motivation but may include various kinds of motivations.

Nickerson’s Travel Motivations

Furthermore, following the above reasons for travel, tourism seems to serve psychological needs. Nickerson (1996) argues that deep psychological needs are the basic motivators for tourism. She uses Maslow’s “Hierarchy of Needs”, a theory about psychological needs and motivation to describe people’s motivation to travel.

Nickerson applied the Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to describe travel motivations as below:

Physiological Needs

This can explain why people go to the seaside or a mountain retreat to avoid the heat; these are all actions required to be performed by certain physiological conditions inside the human body.

To travelers, safety needs are expressed in terms of the safety of people’s life, property, and psychology. They hope that in the course of a journey, no vehicle or boat accidents occur, they don’t get sick, they’re not robbed, they don’t have things stolen, and that they safely complete the entire journey, etc.

They also hope to achieve a psychological feeling of security. For example, they hope there is no political upheaval or war in the country they go to and that social order is sound there, etc.

Although the natural scenery and human cultural landscape of some countries are extremely rich, tourists would lose the motivation to travel there if the country has been involved in a long period of upheaval or war.

Therefore, the need for safety is one of the most important factors that influence people’s travel behavior.

Tourists’ personal interaction needs have diverse characteristics. People who go traveling all want to be able to travel together with close friends, get to make new friends in the course of their journey, understand different cultures and customs through interaction with local people, or enhance their friendships by visiting friends and family.

Therefore, travel is one of the most effective activities for people to make new friends, meet up with old friends around the world, and promote contact between people.

A person who has experience of frequent travel and knows a lot about different countries and regions is often admired and respected by others, which helps to fulfill the need to be respected as an individual.

Travel can involve a search for stimulation, challenging oneself, and acquiring knowledge about new things, and this kind of travel involves expressing one’s own self-value to fulfill self-actualization needs. For example: climbing Mount Everest.

The Push-and Pull Theory In 1977, Dann, a U.S. academic, put forward the push-pull theory of travel motivations. He considered that travel behavior was influenced by both push factors and pull factors. People travel because they are “pushed” into making travel decisions by internal, psychological forces, and “pulled” by the external forces of the destination attributes.

Travel Personality and General Personality Theories

Travel personality, general personality.

As stated before, motivation, opportunity, and ability are not the only determinants of tourist behavior. Personality influences traveling behavior too. For example, people who want to climb Mount Everest, in general, have certain personality traits in common.

Most of those people will have a tendency to sensation seeking, for climbing mountains is performing risky behavior.

The personality dimensions used are commonly used in personality psychology. Therefore it seems relevant to explore a few basic aspects of these theories. Four personality dimensions are used to describe tourists in order to indicate motivations for different types of travel:

• Activation: A guest’s level of excitement, alertness or energy.
• Variety: The need for change or novelty.
• Extraversion or introversion: The extent to which a person is outgoing and uninhibited in interpersonal situations.
• External or internal locus of control: The way people perceive whether or not they themselves are in charge of the happenings in their lives.

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Travel Motivation

There is always a motive behind everything happens in this world. Always there is a motivation in doing any work or anything. There are mainly two factors in behind happening anything it may be pull factors or push factors. In tourism, behind the movement of tourist there are various motives, it may may be leisure, business, pilgrimage or any other.

As we know tourism is a people centric and one of the fastest growing industry. Assessing behavior and motivations of tourist is a critical task as travel decisions of tourist depends on it. Travel has been a nomadic urge in human earlier in quest of food. As humanity grows desire for shelter came into being and with the rises of civilization search of trade bundles with safety and security. The game changing moment for mass tourism comes with the rise of leisure time. Assessing motivations of tourist is a critical task as travel decisions of tourist depends on it.

Motivation is an intrinsic property of a human-being that arises from the inside or of psychological origin. A combination of internal and external forces that motivates to drive the tourism industry. To satisfy all the levels of needs such psychological, physiological, etc. humans travels. It tells of tourist attempt to satisfy their recognized need and strongly influence decisions made by tourist in every steps of decision. Various theories have been developed to reveal the most important question why people travel?

The answer to this question is influenced by the nature of the travel motives.

4.  Types of Motivation  

Motivation can be classified into categories:  

1.  Intrinsic Motivation:  

this type of motivation comes from the inside through the core of the heart and mind of the tourist to do any specific work. t is defined as the performing of an activity for its intrinsic motivation that emerges from an individual’s inherent satisfactions, enjoyment, challenge entailed, interest or the feeling of inner pleasure that drives from the task rather than for some external pressures, or rewards or any separable consequence.

2. Extrinsic Motivation:  

  All the external factors which tends and individual to do any specific work. Individuals performs certain activities in order to attain or receive something from the outcomes. It involves executing an action influenced by the outer stimuli, to attain an external reinforcements or rewards from others such as money, praise, status etc.

Travel Motivation Theories

The tourist selecting to travel for business, leisure, pilgrimage, adventure or for other reasons, depends on motivation to visit destination. There are some common factors influencing tourist travel decisions such as 

•      Availability free time

•      Disposable income

•      Age and status

•      Attractiveness of destinations

A. Gray’s Travel-Motivation Theory .

 Gray explains the motivation of individual and given two motives for travel:

Wanderlust:   

It describes the motive or the desire to go from a known to an unknown place. It is travelling from or leaving a familiar places to go and see different or unfamiliar places. It is about going to different destinations to experience monumental and socio-cultural heritage.

It is a type of travel to a destination that can provide the tourist with specific facilities or better amenities. It is travelling for particular purpose or facilities that are not available in place of residence of the tourist.

B. McIntosh and Goeldner Categorization of Travel Motivation 

McIntosh has stated that basic travel motivators may be grouped into four broad categories:  

1. Physical Motivators 

These types of motivation are concerned with the individual physical health and well-being involves physical relaxation and rest, sporting activities, medical care or treatment and specific remedial health management. It include physical motivators that are concern with health from recreation to attending yoga camp to medical treatment for upkeep of health. 

2.Interpersonal Motivators   

Human are social animal and always keen to make new friends, have a desire to visit and meet relatives and friends, or simply want to escape from the daily hassles of everyday life. These type of motivators are termed as interpersonal motivators.

3.Cultural Motivators

Cultural motivators are describe as curiosity that tourists have and want to experience different people’s cultures and lifestyle. These are related with tourists desire to travel to different destination, in order to know about other countries, people, their culture, tradition, life style, art, music etc.

4.Status and Prestige Motivators    

Tourists travel to secure respect among their friends or in family and recognition of education and knowledge or for pursuit of hobbies. These types of motivators are identified with the need for fame and status or of personal esteem and personal development. It also include travel for business or professional interests. 

C. Anomie and Ego Enhancement Motivation Theory

            Dann investigated two push factors and proposes that motivational factors can be grouped into anomie and ego enhancement. 

Anomie refers to the need and desire to rise above the feeling of loneliness and quarantine inherent in everyday life and to get away from daily hassles. It is associated with search for life’s meaning and interaction with family and friends and social communication. The anomic tourists are mainly young, married, male mostly repeat visitors. They are from urban and rural areas and are above-average socio-economic status.

2.Ego enhancement  

Ego-enhancement tourists are the opposite end of spectrum. It derived from desire and need for recognition. The individual’s desire and need for social recognition is mainly associated with it and is achieved through the status or ego enhance conferred by travel. Ego-enhancement tourists are likely to be female, married or single mostly first-time visitors. They are older than anomic tourists and typically from lower socio-economic group. 

Dann argues that push factors are logically, and often an antecedent to pull factors. The question that  ‘what makes tourists travel’  can only be recognized through the push factors. As the tourist to take two different difficult decisions at two diverse times i.e. “whether to go” and “where to go”. 

D. Push and Pull Theory

Crompton identified two different levels of socio-psychological motivation. The first level of motivation is the desire to travel, that drives the initial decision for a trip or a vacation. It subsequently facilitates individual’s decision for destination. The second level of motivation drives the decision of selection of destinations. After the initial decision for making a trip, various motivation factors comes into being that impact the selection of destination. Crompton proposes two groups of motives among pleasure vacationers, one that push for a trip or tour are socio-psychological motives, while another factors that pull are cultural motives. 

1.Push Factors.   

Push factors are those factors which motivate people to travel. Push factors are initiating travel desire of an individual to engage in recreational activities or tourism. .Push factors are the inner motives which tends tourists to seek activities for needs fulfillment. Some push factors of travelling are:

•      Exploration and evaluation of self.

•      Escape from a perceived mundane environment.

•      Relaxation.

•      Health and fitness.

•      Re-experiencing family.

•      Facilitation of social interaction.

•      Enhancement of kinship relationships.

•      Novelty.

•      Cultural experiences.

•      Education.

•      Prestige.

2.Pull Factors 

All the external factors that pulls or attracts and individual towards some specific things or any destination. Pull factors appear due to the attractiveness and the attributes associated with the destination. It is related to the external condition, cognitive aspects or choices available on a destination such as attractions, climate, culture etc. Everyone has unique taste and choices which attract or pull individuals experience the destination. Identifying a set of pull factors that can be applicable to all sites is possible as different destinations have different or unique set of pull factors. 

Pull factors were characterized by  facilities ,  core attractions  and  landscape features .

•      The  facilities factor  encompasses all tourism facilities of a destination including fooding, lodging, roads, hospitality and security. 

•      The  core attractions  factor includes all those activities and services available for tourism. It includes sports activities, night life, entertainment and amusement and shopping facilities. 

•      The  landscape features  pull factor strongly relates to the geographical and sociocultural features of destination i.e. natural and cultural environment of destination. 

E. Escaping and Seeking Motivation of Mannell and Iso-Ahola

Mannell and Iso-Ahola   defined the motivation in socio psychological perspective. A two-dimensional model of tourist motivation where both the forces simultaneously influence tourists’ behaviour. The theory consists of both personal and interpersonal escape & seeking motives together. An individual perceive that satisfaction can be feel from leisure related activities, for two major reasons 

Escaping  – the desire to get out from the monotonous environment of work.

Seeking  – the aspiration to get intrinsic psychological rewards from other or self through traveling 

Tourist are motivated for leisure or tourism related activities in order to get away from the personal and/or interpersonal problems of day to day hustle and bustle of life and get personal and/or interpersonal rewards from passive and active tourism activities.

Personal rewards  are more about individual satisfaction includes exploration and relaxation; learning, challenge, a sense of competence etc.

Interpersonal rewards  are arising from social interaction with family and friends or with other people in destination.

Intrinsic rewards  arise from the activity that provide certain feelings, such as a feeling of mastery and escape from the monotonous environment. 

F. Travel Career Ladder (TCL)

The travel career ladder approach was proposed by Pearce. The approach is based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory of motivation. 

Following Maslow theory, the proposed model sees the needs of travelers is organized into a hierarchy or ladder model. Biological needs including relaxation at the foundation level, followed by safety needs and relationships needs, and in line selfesteem and development needs, and fulfillment needs at the highest level.  

The model identified five steps of hierarchy affecting tourist behaviour. It suggests that a group of needs in the ladder steps or level can be dominant at a particular time but travel motivation of tourist may derive from the different level of ladder. It emphasizes all the motives for traveling of a tourist, rather than a single motive. TCL proposes that every individual or tourist headway upward through hierarchy levels with accumulated travel experience and psychologically maturity. 

This shows that travel motivation changes as tourist acquire experiences in tourism developmental and dynamic motivations process. An individual can descend or ascend on the ladder as the direction of the change in level may vary with the experience. Some individuals may undergo every steps or level on either side of the model or may ascend the ladder on one side of the schema. Each individual every time not seek the similar type of experience or fulfillment from travel.  For example: First time visitor may be more cautious of safety and security then repeat visitor due more knowledge and experience about the destination or of trip. 

G. Travel Career Pattern (TCP)

The TCP model is modification of the earlier Travel Career Ladder (TCL) approach. The TCP emphasis on motivations patterns of tourist over their life cycle because of different motivation and its impact on their travelling experience. Travel experience plays a driver role for changing travel motivations which has crucial part in

TCP model. Travel experience is the collective changes in an individual’s perspective about self and environment due to tourism activities and events that individual passes through in course of travelling. 

Pearce suggested three layers of travel motivation:

Layer 1-  It is the core of the TCP and includes common motives such as escape, relaxation, health and fitness, social interaction etc. 

Layer 2-  It comprises series of moderately important motivators that surround core layer of motivations. It related to self-actualization and interaction of guest with the host society and environment. 

Layer 3-  The outer layer of model embraces motives with lesser importance such as social status and nostalgia.

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What Motivates People to Travel

There is no right or wrong way to live. The very concept of being right or wrong is based on the circumstances you find yourself in when you are called upon to make a judgment. But what about traveling? Do people who dare to walk on unusual paths know some tricks to stay motivated? Or maybe it is a kind of sport or activity that gives them these extreme emotions? Have you ever wondered what keeps them motivated? What motivates people to travel the world rather than spending time at home? Reasons are plentiful.

The reasons why we travel are as varied as travelers themselves. Someone may need a break from the hustle and bustle, look at things from a different angle. Make some new friends or get someone to fall in love with. It is no secret that occasional change of scenery is certainly necessary due to inevitable emotions any traveler experience on every trip. Making better decisions in your life often requires switching attention backwards and forwards between different tasks and focusing on something else. So there is nothing better than a two-week stay away from home to reboot your brain and start focusing on self-improvement, get rid of things you know don’t add value to your life.

In this post I’m trying to comprehend how does one stay motivated to travel, not to think about and regret going home because of homesickness, and why travel is so important in life.

1. The Need for Change

My original motivation for travel some 10 years ago was the need for change. I was aware of a whole world that existed outside of my comfort zone . I was striving to find a passion and start thinking and being more positive. At the same time, I realized reinvigorating my thinking would be impossible without taking myself away from the present, familiar environs to something that is new and unfamiliar and because it is new, gratifyingly stimulating and thrilling.

The entire thing wasn’t just about escaping from the dull daily routine. Though once I stepped out of my comfort zone, the joy and happiness from exploring new destinations became addictive. It didn’t take me long to realize I wanted to change myself in a way that will make me a better person. Furthermore, I wanted to get an unfiltered view of the world. I wanted to try traditional Thai food dishes , get lost in Beijing and see the most bizarre trees on the planet.

There’s nothing stale or banal about the psychology of tourism. I think you’ll agree with me when I say it’s a completely different experience to journey to Shanghai than to watch it on a NatGeo documentary. Exploring the winding streets of Hong Kong is drastically different from swiping HK photos on Instagram feed.

Adjusting to new surroundings, immersing myself in entirely different cultures, and hearing someone speaking an unfamiliar accent is something that makes me feel alive.

2. The Romance of Travel

Let’s face it, romance is a strong travel motivator. Apart from other cultural motivators in tourism, romance, and pleasure of the trip are the primary characteristics and qualities of the travel experience. Since loneliness and the need to escape unpleasant circumstances can drive some to extreme measures, the romance of travel and some indulgence are the best ways to overcome difficult personal circumstances.

Practicing pleasure travel gives rise to the satisfaction gained only by such experiences. And satisfaction often leads to reducing tension and anxiety. The pleasure trip thus becomes even more important and primarily learned a form of reducing stress and stopping anxiety.

Even the most committed solo travelers or digital nomads can relate to feelings of loneliness . After spending more than 10 years on the road I can admit, I have been succumbed to moments of feeling alone. Discussing the nuances of your trip with friends or relatives can have a big impact on the way you see the world and think about yourself. Few are immune to missing family and friends or feeling homesick at some time and have felt the need to seek interaction with other human beings. Dealing with loneliness is one of the greatest challenges solo travelers face .

3. Travel for Health

As I already said, there are many reasons why people love to travel. After a decade on the road, I’ve had my share of illnesses. However, I’ve always been prepared and controlled the risks by keeping in mind what should I do to stay healthy on the road .

Traveling is generally considered as an investment in health. When you travel, you get to visit healing sites like the Blue Lagoon in Iceland, the Pamukkale Hot Springs in Turkey or the Dead Sea. Hot springs and mineral-rich lakes can help you improve your skin, relieve pain, and reduce stress. Yup, hot geothermal springs can’t heal every kind of disease. But soaking in them may provide a range of conditions, from rashes to digestive disorders, improved after a visit.

Recently, I found myself standing on top of the Singuttara Hill admiring one of the most beloved and well-known holy sites in Asia . Shwedagon Pagoda, Yangon was in front of me with its incomparable architectural design and shimmering gold plated dome. I found myself pulled to this spot with no clear understanding of what has happened.

Shwedagon Pagoda is the reason I am here, the backdrop to the myriad golden and painted lesser-known pagodas and temples I am photographing. And the reason so many people chose this place full of magic and mystery. The truth is that this golden stupa has a powerful vortex of spiritual energy. No one knows why this is, but the Pagoda is the most important religious site and place of pilgrimage.

4. Travel to Learn Life Skills and Life Lessons

The two months I spent traveling around Thailand during my big trip were some of the most intense and interesting months of my life. Every day was a new adventure. I challenged myself to learn new things, as a result, I learned so much during that time I wouldn’t trade it for anything. I mastered my inner peace, learned a lot about foreign language and culture, about Thailand in general, and about humanity.

With all the exciting moments we face each day abroad in a foreign place it’s hard not to come away with more than a souvenir.

What I love most about traveling (and hiking there) to new places is the chance to develop a better sense of direction. While I always thought that I had a good sense of direction, it was not until I went trekking in Thailand that it was really put to the test. Traveling on your own means you’re the only one who chooses what to explore next. There is no better opportunity to test and/or develop your sense of direction.

What I’ve learned from that trip I must create an awareness of my surroundings based on the four points of the compass. If you know where north is, you can easily determine the direction and navigate your way through. By constantly connecting your walking route to the north by using a compass (try not to use GPS!), you are exercising your natural sense of direction.

5. Travel for Pleasure

In most cases, traveling gives me a unique feeling of the present moment. When I’m entangled in my thoughts of past or future or imagination, finding the pleasures can help me shift the perspective. The very concept of traveling for pleasure is subjectively relative to many unexpected circumstances.

Life exists only at this very moment. Thus focusing on many things at a time may generate dissatisfaction and the feeling of a missed opportunity. The kind of people you meet on your way often can help you concentrate your mind on the present moment. Therefore broaden your horizons. So having pleasure in traveling is not per se in the movement from destination to destination , rather the things that give you the story to tell.

When I was traveling from Cairo to Dusseldorf, the aircraft flew me through Rome and certain parts of Italy . Upon reaching a particular point, the pilot swerved the plane to give the passengers a view of the terrain. Though this twist was not a part of my original itinerary, it spiced up a good memory.

After that particular flight I realized, we don’t travel for pleasure. We travel to seek pleasure. Travel isn’t about short-term pleasures, it is rather about a long lasting pleasure that creates tangible memories both past and present.

What is your motivation for traveling?

STOP PROCRASTINATING YOUR DREAM VOYAGE!

8 REASONS WHY TRAVELLING MAKES YOU A BETTER PERSON

WHY DO WE TRAVEL

9 to 5 Voyager

Excellent post! And truly unique. I think finding the right motivation is key to getting out of the house and seeing the world.

Angella Shin

A lot of people ask me this question…and how I manage to save the money to travel. Well…I just tell them, I’ve been sheltered all my life because I was busy building up my nursing career. I finally met my husband who was already well traveled and he began to show me the world. We traveled to 7 countries in the last 2 years and I am just now blogging about them. We travel to get away from comfort and take a break from the norm. It just feels refreshing to visit a new country and learn a unique culture.

If you agree, please check out my travel blog as well…would love your feedback!

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Travel motives

Understanding tourists travel motives is crucial in several respects. Partly for tourism business owners who need to understand which needs their experiences should fulfil for tourists, but also for the various authorities planning for tourism development. It can also explain tourists’ (unsustainable or sustainable) behaviour on holiday and make it possible to counteract or encourage that behaviour. 

It’s important to clarify the definition of travel motive, especially in relation to the purpose of the journey. Motive isn’t the same thing as purpose. Motives are the underlying psychological reasons why we travel, and are often not openly taken into account, unlike the purpose of the trip. They reflect the needs of the individual and can often be hard to put into words.

One example: The purpose of my last trip to Stockholm was to meet friends and acquaintances as well as go to a music event. Those were my desired experiences and the purpose of the trip. Motive explains why we want to travel for that purpose and can in this case, for instance, be escapism (i.e. getting away from it all), relationships (strengthening and nurturing relationships with nearest and dearest) or nostalgia (seeing the band I’ve loved since I was a teenager). That it was Stockholm in particular that I travelled to was because I have friends there and the band was playing there that weekend. But it could just as easily have been another destination. In this context it’s also common to talk about push or pull factors, in other words factors that push you away from your home area and factors that pull you to various destinations. The former often includes motive, like the desire to escape day to day life (escapism) or to try and find something different (novelty seeking), whereas pull factors are specific attractions in destinations (read more about that later under Destinations’ Offers).

Research on travel motive has discovered a number of different motivating factors and patterns, that often change depending on context and destination. Two theories have been important for the understanding of travel motive; Travel Career Ladder and Travel Career Pattern, which are partly based on Maslow’s well known Hierarchy of Needs. The latter progresses the former, and focuses on motivation patterns, in other words the many different motives that cluster together to form a tourist’s motivation to travel to a particular place. The Travel Career theory is important here, as well as motivation pattern. Someone who has visited every corner of the earth and travelled continuously for long periods has other motives than a first time traveller. The motives overlap each other but research has shown that in general there is a significant difference that is derived from a tourist’s prior experience of travelling.

Research shows that tourists with high travel experience want to distance themselves from other “tourists” (read: charter tourists) and see themselves as “travellers” and “explorers”. Consumption of (different kinds of) journeys consequently becomes an important strategy, which is used to differentiate themselves socially and culturally from others. In the table below we can see examples of which motives arise in connection to how experienced a tourist is.

Table 1: Motivational factors, travel career patterns (adapted from Pearce & Lee, 2005)

The table shows that there are four main motives which arise whatever the travel experience; Novelty Seeking, Escapism/Relaxation, Relationships and Self Development. The last two motives pull in different directions depending on the travel experience; internal or external (personal development versus host site involvement and security versus strengthen relationships). The table also shows motives that are generally specific to those with lower travel experience.

Research on travel motives is often carried out on Western tourists. There’s a certain degree of variation in how strong the different travel motives are, but studies of Asian tourists, for instance, show bigger differences. For example prestige or self-actualization, and strengthening family relationships have been shown to be of greater importance in studies of Japanese tourists, and novelty seeking is less important in comparison. Other cultural contexts are said to be the largest reason for these differences.

Crompton, J. L., & McKay, S. L. (1997). Motives of visitors attending festival events. Annals of Tourism Research, 24(2), 425-439. Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1982). Toward a social psychological theory of tourism motivation: A rejoinder. Annals of Tourism Research, 9(2), 256-262.  Kim, S. S., & Prideaux, B. (2005). Marketing implications arising from a comparative study of international pleasure tourist motivations and other travel-related characteristics of visitors to Korea. Tourism Management, 26(3), 347-357. Munt, I. (1994). The ‘Other' postmodern tourism: Culture, Travel and the New Middle Classes. Theory, Culture & Society, 11(3), 101-123. Pearce, P. L., & Lee, U.-I. (2005). Developing the travel career approach to tourist motivation. Journal of Travel Research, 43(3), 226-237.

• Methodology

Maintained in cooperation with Travel CO 2

Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Travel motivation

• 2.1 Travel Career Ladder (TCL)
• 2.2 Travel Career Patterns (TCP)
• 3 Murray's classification of human needs: Application to travel motivation
• 4 Push/pull theory
• 5 Plog's allocentrism/psychocentrism model
• 6 Conclusion
• 8 References
• 9 External links

Crompton (1979) notes it is possible to describe the who, when, where, and how of travel motivation, but there is no answer to the question ‘why’, the most interesting question about travel behaviour. Travel motivation relates to why people travel (Woodside & Martin, 2007). If we can explain what an individual gets out of travel experiences then we can explain the motivation behind them seeking it out. Motivation is crucial in explaining travel behaviour as it constitutes the driving force behind all actions. Motivation sets the stage for individual goal formation, reflected in both travel choice and behaviour while further influencing expectations and experience perception. Motivation is therefore a factor in satisfaction formation (Reissmann, n.d). Basic motivation theory suggests a dynamic process of internal psychological factors (needs, wants and goals), causing an uncomfortable level of tension within individuals’ minds and bodies, resulting in actions aimed at releasing that tension and satisfying these needs (Fodness, 1994), moving people to do.

This chapter delves into the reasons behind pursuing travel experiences through reviewing psychological literature. Most travel motivation literature is based on application of theories from mainstream psychology. This chapter highlights Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs and its application to travel motivation, stemming from here a less well known of Maslow’s theories is the aesthetic need and the need to know and understand. Examination of the Travel Career Ladder (TCL) and Travel Career Pattern (TCP) will also help explain the motives behind seeking travel experiences. Murray’s (1938) classification of human needs , Crompton’s (1979) push/pull theory and Plog's (2001) allocentrism/psychocentrism concept will further contribute to describing the relationship between travel and motivation.    

The aim of this chapter is to use psychological theories to uncover the motivation behind travel. It is hoped that this investigation will aid readers in understanding their employees, consumers, families, friends or own travel motives better.

"I travel not to go anywhere, but to go. I travel for travel’s sake. The great affair is to move.” – Robert Louis Stevenson  

“We travel for fulfilment.” –  Hilaire Belloc

“I travel because half the fun is the aesthetic of lostness.” – Bradbury

Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Application to travel motivation

An influential psychological theory and one that many travel motivation researchers base their theoretical analysis around is Maslow's hierarchy of needs (1954) (Jang & Cai, 2002), also known as Maslow's pyramid. According to Maslow (1970), human needs can be arranged in a hierarchy of five categories (see Figure 2). The most basic needs are physiological, such as hunger, thirst, and sex (Huang & Hsu, 2009). Climbing the pyramid, Maslow’s other needs include safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualisation. Typically, people fulfill their needs starting from the lower segments of the pyramid, upwards, as each level of need is satisfied. Human needs usually follow this hierarchical order; however, circumstances exist when higher level needs outweigh lower level needs even though they have not been met (Maslow, 1970). This can be the case when it comes to travel motivation. Maslow’s hierarchy theory helps us to understand the different needs that motivate travellers while also providing knowledge about what kinds of experiences travellers seek, especially for certain groups of people. Nationality and age play a role in the motivation to travel, however gender has no effect when predicting motivation to travel (Jönsson & Devonish, 2008).

Many researchers have used motivational theory to try to interpret the motivations of tourists. On the idea that motivations derive from a real or perceived need, it is justifiable to analyse individuals' travel experience seeking choices as a consequence of need deficiency (Brown, 2005). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs forms the basis for further development and applications to understand travel behaviour (Maslow, 1970).This hierarchy can be related to the travel industry in the sense that unless individuals have their physiological and safety needs met, they are less likely to be interested in travelling the world. Self-actualisation can, in fact, be considered the end or goal of leisure (Brown, 2005), with travel experiences offering the opportunity to re-evaluate and discover more about the self, to act out one’s self-image as a way of modifying or correcting it.

Maslow discusses two other sets of important human needs: the aesthetic need and the need to know and understand, [ grammar? ] they are less known because they were not included in the hierarchy model (Huang & Hsu, 2009). If placed in the pyramid these two needs would come between self-actualisation and esteem (see Table 1).

The aesthetic need & the need to know and understand

Referring to Figure 2 and Table 1 the first four needs, Maslow identified as deficit needs [ grammar? ] :  if the needs are not met, they make us uncomfortable and we are motivated or driven by these needs until we are able to sufficiently fulfill these needs (Gautam, 2007).

However the last three needs, particularly the aesthetic need and the need to know and understand, he [ who? ] identifies as growth needs: we never get enough of these. We are constantly motivated by these needs as they affect our growth and development (Gautam, 2007). It is obvious how important these needs are when explaining travel motivation and the experience seeking behaviour behind it.

• The need to know and understand : at the fifth level of Maslow’s pyramid humans have the need to increase their intelligence and thereby chase knowledge. This need is the expression of the natural human need to learn, explore, discover and create to get a better understanding of the world around them (Martin & Loomis, 2007).
• The aesthetic need : at the sixth level based on Maslow’s beliefs, it is stated in the hierarchy that humans need beautiful imagery or something new and aesthetically pleasing to continue up towards self-actualisation (the seventh and last level). Humans need to refresh themselves in the presence and beauty of nature while carefully absorbing and observing their surroundings to extract the beauty that the world has to offer (Martin & Loomis, 2007). 

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a key theory in travel motivation research. Two conceptual frameworks in understanding travel motivation – the travel career ladder (TCL) and travel career patterns (TCP) – emerged from his work and apply to this field (Huang & Hsu, 2009).

Travel Career Ladder (TCL)

The core idea underlying this conceptual framework is that an individual’s travel motivation changes with his/her travel experience. The Travel Career Ladder (TLC) suggests that peoples’ travel needs change over their life span and with accumulated travel experience. As tourists become more experienced, they increasingly seek satisfaction of higher level needs.

Many people move systematically through a series of stages, or have predictable travel motivational patterns (Huang & Hsu, 2009). Some travellers ascend the hierarchy, while others remain at a particular level. Pearce, (1988) suggests that the TCL proposes that people progress upward through motivation levels with accumulated travel experience and these travel experiences enable people to psychologically mature.

Based on Maslow’s hierarchy, Pearce’s 1988 model specified that there are five different steps affecting tourist behaviour (see Figure 3) which may be used to explain the TCL concept. Pearce (1996) describes his theory as distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation at the four lower levels of the system. The travel career ladder emphasises all the tourists’ patterns or motives, rather than a single motive for traveling. Pearce (1996), observes that the direction of the change within the TCL is variable; some individuals may ascend the ladder predominantly on the left hand side of the system, while others may go through all the steps on both the left and right hand side of the model. This shows that travel motivation is developmental and dynamic, as people acquire touristic experiences (a career), their motivations change (Ryan, 1998). Those going abroad for the first time may prefer the security of a group tour, but in time may opt for independent ones as they become more experienced.

Pearce explicitly recognised that tourists’ travel motivation can be self-directed or other-directed (see Figure 3); individuals do not always seek the same type of fulfillment from travel, and people can descend as well as ascend on the ladder. To what extent tourists do so from one trip to the next, or whether this only occurs over longer time periods, is not quite as clear (Brown, 2005).

Travel Career Patterns (TCP)

Another theoretical outline based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the Travel Career Patterns (TCP) framework, presented by Pearce and Lee (2002). The TCP is essentially a modified version of the TCL. The TCL theory proposed that travellers progress up the ladder of travel motives as their travel experience increases, which created some questions of validity of the theory [ why? ] (Ryan 1998; Pearce and Lee 2005), and led to development of Travel Career Pattern (TCP) theory (Paris & Teye, 2010). The TCP reduced the hierarchical focus of the TCL and recognised that travel motivation is dynamic and multi-leveled (Paris & Teye, 2010). The concept of travel career is still central to the TCP, as is the idea that travellers will have changing motivational patterns during those travel careers (Pearce and Lee 2005).

The TCP is centred on 14 motivational factors:

• Self-actualisation – internal
• Self-enhancement – internal
• Romance – internal
• Belonging – internal
• Autonomy – internal
• Self-development (host site involvement) – external
• Nature – external
• Escape/relax – most important
• Novelty – most important
• Kinship – most important
• Nostalgia – less important
• Stimulation – less important
• Isolation – less important
• Recognition/social status – less important

The most important and core concepts (see figure 4) of the Travel Career Pathway are the most common motives among travellers (Lee, 2004). The next layer or middle layer is moderately important and is where traveller’s motives change from inner to externally orientated. Individuals at a higher travel career level were more externally orientated and motivated to travel, while people with lower travel career levels were more internally motivated to travel. The final and outer layer consists of common, stable and less important travel motives (Huang & Hsu, 2009).

Murray's classification of human needs: Application to travel motivation

Another motivation theory from mainstream psychology which may offer an explanation behind travel motives and behaviour is Murray’s classification of human needs. Henry Murray’s 1938 needs classification theory provides a comprehensive list of human needs that could influence travel behaviour (Pizam & Mansfeld, 1999). Murray listed 14 physiological and 30 psychological needs from which it is possible to identify factors that could act as travel motives (Pizam & Mansfeld, 1999), offering considerable scope for the exploration of needs and travel destination decisions (Ross, 1998).

For example, Table 2 provides a selection of Murray’s needs that may be applicable to travel motivation.

However this theory suggests that needs will change independently, so knowing the strength of one need will not necessarily explain the strength of others (Ross, 1998), due to its complexity Murray’s work is not as easy to apply as Maslow’s hierarchy and has not been adopted by travel researchers and is also therefore not as well known (Pizam & Mansfeld, 1999).

Push/pull theory

One of the best known theories of travel motives, after Maslow’s, was proposed originally by Dan (1977) who suggested a two-tiered scheme of motivational factors: the ‘push’ and the ‘pull’ (Brown, 2005). The push factors social-psychological motives that drive the desire to travel [ Rewrite to improve clarity ] . The pull factors are external factors that affect where a person travels to fulfil the identified needs or desires. Dann suggested that anomie and ego-enhancement were the basic underlining reasons for travel (Brown, 2005). John Crompton (1979) agreed with Dann’s basic idea of push and pull motives but went further to classify these motives as those that push people to travel and motives that pull people towards a travel experience as well as identifying nine motives for travel.

• The escape from a perceived mundane environment
• Exploration and evaluation of self
• Enhancement of kinship relationships
• Facilitation of social interaction

He classified the first seven motives as push factors, and the last two as pull factors (Brown, 2005). According to Crompton (1979) people travel because they are pushed by their inner motives and/or because they are pulled by the external factors of an experience. It is considered that most motives that push people originate from non-materialistic inner desires to escape, experience adventure, fulfill dreams, develop relationships, rest and relax, improve health and recreate or from a desire for prestige and socialisation (Huang & Hsu, 2009). On the other hand, the motives that pull are based on the attractive factors of the destination and expectations like a search for novelty and education (Vukic, Kuzmanovic, & Kostic Stankovic, 2014). Some researchers only accept push factors as motivation (Woodside & Martin, 2007), while they are considered important in initiating travel desire to satisfy or reduce the need, travellers are also pulled by destination attractions and attributes [ grammar? ] .

Plog's allocentrism/psychocentrism model

Stanley Plog (1974; 1987) developed the influential allocentrism/psychocentrism model, the earliest model that forms the basis of tourism typology theory. Individuals either fall into the allocentrism or psychocentrism category in relation to travel seeking behaviour. Psychocentrics are defined as people who experience territorial boundaries: a tendency to have travelled less throughout one’s lifetime, generalised anxieties: a strong feeling of insecurity in daily life and a sense of powerlessness: inability to control fortunes and misfortunes throughout their lifetime (Plog, 1974). Psychocentrics dislike destinations that offer unfamiliarity or insecurity. It is suggested that the psychocentric is dominated by safety needs (Brown, 2005). Allocentrism however exists on the opposite side of psychocentrism; allocentric people are venturesome and self-assured (Huang & Hsu, 2009) who tend to choose remote, untouched destinations (Brown, 2005), and unstructured holidays with more involvement in local culture (Pizam & Mansfeld, 1999). Between the psychocentric and allocentric groups are clusters of near-psychocentric, near-allocentric and mid-centric individuals (see Figure 5), the latter group displaying characteristics of an adventurer, but they want home comforts. It is this group that represents the mass travel seeking crowd (Brown, 2005).

Recently, Plog (2001) updated his model and re-labelled the term psychocentrics with dependables, and allocentrics with venturers. The remainder falls in between: near-dependables, near-venturers, and centrics (the largest group). Based on the model, Plog (2001) argues that most destinations follow a predictable but uncontrolled developmental pattern from birth to maturity, old age, and declination (Huang & Hsu, 2009). At each stage, a destination appeals to a different psychographic group of travellers based on the destination’s character and success. In the early stage, mass tourists do not arrive; only a few venturers visit. When the venturers return home, they talk with friends and relatives about what they have discovered. Some friends and relatives, the near-venturers, visit the intriguing place they had just heard about. When the near-venturers return home satisfied, they pass the message to their mid-centric friends. The destination gradually takes on a more touristy look, which is more appealing to dependables but unattractive to venturers. Some researchers criticise Plog’s model because tourists travel with different motivations on different occasions (Huang & Hsu, 2009). However, compared to other tourist typology forms, Plog’s model seems to provide better tourist motivation explanations (Huang & Hsu, 2009).

Ultimately travel motivation is a multidimensional concept that has been proposed by many researchers. Tourist motivation studies need to be carried out on a regular basis as people’s motivations change over time, with accumulated travel experience and with the social and cultural evolution of travel. Travel motivation is an important topic for researchers to understand and develop individuals' travel ideas and behaviour, with hopes of predicting the who, what, where, when and why of travel seeking experiences with ease. Future study areas include the reasons for people not wanting to travel or the differences in motivation between ages, life stages, income status, cultural backgrounds or occupation types.

This chapter has examined the psychological domain of motivation and its application to reasons for people seeking out travel experiences. It was aimed at improving the readers' understanding of their own travel motives as well as their employees, consumers, family or friends.  

Dann, G. (1977). Anomie, ego-enhancement and tourism. Annals Of Tourism Research, 4(4), 184-194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(77)90037-8

Figler, M., Weinstein, A., Sollers, J., & Devan, B. (1992). Pleasure Travel (tourist) Motivation: A Factor Analytic Approach. Bulletin Of The Psychonomic Society, 30(2), 113-116. Retrieved from http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/649/art%253A10.3758%252FBF03330412.pdf?originUrl=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.3758%2FBF03330412&token2=exp=1442557615~acl=%2Fstatic%2Fpdf%2F649%2Fart%25253A10.3758%25252FBF03330412.pdf%3ForiginUrl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Flink.springer.com%252Farticle%252F10.3758%252FBF03330412*~hmac=1cc8cdcbe38f87ed76946ca0977e211336d026322734289e5adab4d8f4ace108

Fodness, D. (1994). Measuring tourist motivation. Annals Of Tourism Research, 21(3), 555-581. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(94)90120-1

Gautam, S. (2007). Maslow’s eight basic needs and the eight stage developmental model. The Mouse Trap. Retrieved from http://the-mouse-trap.com/2007/12/14/maslows-eight-basic-needs-and-the-eight-stage-devlopmental-model/

Huang, S., & Hsu, C. (2009). Travel motivation: linking theory to practice. International Journal Of Culture, Tourism And Hospitality Research, 3(4), 287-295.

Jönsson, C., & Devonish, D. (2008). Does Nationality, Gender, and Age Affect Travel Motivation? A Case of Visitors to The Caribbean Island of Barbados. Journal Of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 25(3-4), 398-408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10548400802508499

Lee, U. (2004). Travel Motivation and Travel Career Pattern - A Study on Australians. Journal Of Tourism And Leisure Research, 16(4), 163-184.

Lee, U., & Pearce, P. (2002). Travel motivation and travel career patterns. Proceedings Of First Asia Pacific Forum For Graduate Students Research In Tourism, 17-35.

Martin, D., & Loomis, K. (2007). Building teachers: A Constructivist Approach to Introducing Education, (pp. 72-75). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Paris, C., & Teye, V. (2010). Backpacker Motivations: A Travel Career Approach. Journal Of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 19(3), 244-259. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19368621003591350

Pearce, P. (1988). The Ulysses Factor. New York, NY: Springer New York.

Pearce, P. (1993). Fundamentals of Tourist Motivation. In Tourism research: Critiques and Challenges. London: Routledge.

Pearce, P., & Lee, U. (2005). Developing the Travel Career Approach to Tourist Motivation. Journal Of Travel Research, 43(3), 226-237. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0047287504272020

Pizam, A., & Mansfeld, Y. (1999). Consumer behavior in travel and tourism. New York: Haworth Hospitality Press.

Plog, S. (1974). Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in Popularity. Cornell Hotel And Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 14(4), 55-58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001088047401400409

Plog, S. (1987). Travel, Tourism and Hospitality Research. A Handbook for Managers and Researchers. (pp. 203-213). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Plog, S. (2001). Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in Popularity: An Update of a Cornell Quarterly Classic. The Cornell Hotel And Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 42(3), 13-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0010880401423001

Reissmann, T. Motivation Theory. Bringing Holidays to life. Retrieved from: http://www.authenticholidayfilms.com/tourist_motivation_35.html

Ross, G. (1998). The psychology of tourism. Melbourne: Hospitality Press.

Ryan, C. (1998). The travel career ladder An Appraisal. Annals Of Tourism Research, 25(4), 936-957. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0160-7383(98)00044-9

Vukic, M., Kuzmanovic, M., & Kostic Stankovic, M. (2014). Understanding the Heterogeneity of Generation Y's Preferences for Travelling: a Conjoint Analysis Approach. International Journal Of Tourism Research, 17(5), 482-491. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2015

Woodside, A., & Martin, D. (2007). Tourism management . Wallingford, Oxfordshire: CABI Pub.

External links

• Intriguing blog piece to read , Reissmann thinks outside the box http://www.authenticholidayfilms.com/tourist_motivation_35.html
• Social contributions : Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Travel motivation
• Quiz : What travel motive best describes you? https://www.qzzr.com/quiz/ad0f4764-a8c8-4ae5-9754-71742d1e092b/fi9xdWl6emVzLzEwNjQ2OA - Made with Qzzr.com - Further information available from this article: http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/649/art%253A10.3758%252FBF03330412.pdf?originUrl=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.3758%2FBF03330412&token2=exp=1442557615~acl=%2Fstatic%2Fpdf%2F649%2Fart%25253A10.3758%25252FBF03330412.pdf%3ForiginUrl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Flink.springer.com%252Farticle%252F10.3758%252FBF03330412*~hmac=1cc8cdcbe38f87ed76946ca0977e211336d026322734289e5adab4d8f4ace108

This quiz is based on the Travel Motivation Survey (TMS) from the above article, results support past and present papers in travel research.

There are 5 possible categories that a participant could be placed in:

Anomie/authenticity seeking

Specifically this category validates Dann's (1977) position that people travel in search of something better or more comfortable for themselves, Pearce (1983) also suggested that positive travel experiences reflect fulfillment of self-actualisation, and needs for love and belonging. It further maintains Cohen's (1979) description of diversity, experimental and existential travel modes. McCannell's (1976) thesis is also all about people seeking a more authentic travel existence.

Culture/education seeking

Present data reinforces that travel can be for cultural enhancement and educational pursuits (Crompton, 1979, Dann, 1977), meaning that individuals are 'pulled' toward the attributes of the destination rather then social-psychological factors that motivate one to travel.

Escape/regression seeking

Many researchers are supported in this category (Crompton. 1979, Cohen, 1979, Farber 1954) with suggestions that travel is to escape from pressure, dissatisfaction and routine at home. Trying to shed responsibility and relax.

Wanderlust/exploring seeking

Relating to the desire to roam and explore Gary, 1970, Cohen, 1979 & Vogt, 1976 all acknowledge this motive.

Jetsetting/prestige seeking

Finally this motive implies a desire for personal recognition, status and higher living, Lett (1983), Dann (1977) and Crompton (1979) support this social prestige seeking travel motive.

• Resources needing improved grammar
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7 Ways to Stay Motivated to Travel

Motivated people can achieve anything they set their minds to. But how does one stay motivated, especially to travel, when you are busy working and living life while your family and friends disparage your ideas , you’re overwhelmed planning your trip , or maybe just burnt out from being on the road already?

Motivation is not an unlimited wellspring but a battery that needs to be kept charged. All too often, life gets in the way and hinders our plans or throws us off track. If we don’t pay attention, that battery becomes depleted and our travel goals fall to the wayside. All of a sudden, years have gone by and you’re still nowhere near reaching the travel goals you’ve dreamed about.

For example, my trip to Iceland had been years in the making. I always talked about it but it kept getting delayed because “stuff came up.”

It wasn’t until I finally said “enough” and booked my ticket right there that the trip became a reality.

And it’s not just the waiting to travel that requires motivation. You can burn out and get off track while on the road too. It’s something that happens to a lot of long-term travelers.

Years ago, I burnt out when I was on the road. To recover, I went to Cambodia to recharge my batteries. I stayed in one place, watched movies, read books. Alone. No wandering or sightseeing. Just rest. It was relaxing, and one day I woke up and said “I’m ready to go again.”

When you plan your trips, you don’t think about the long boring hours on a bus, the delays, the annoying airports, dealing with snorers in hostel dorms, fending off tours and scammers, and all the other things that will suck the energy and joy out of your experience.

Eventually, you need to stop and recharge your batteries. To is stay in one place, watch Netflix, and relax.

Whether you’re planning a trip or already on the road, it’s important to find ways to stay motivated. Today, I want to share seven tips on how to stay motivated to travel — whether you are planning your trip or feeling a little burnt out on the road:  

1. Hold yourself accountable

The best thing you can do to stay focused is to be held accountable. Being accountable to others will help make sure that you don’t fall off the wagon. They will help keep you focused on your goal, and the social pressure to stay on track will provide some extra motivation to follow through.

Whether that is betting money, having someone check in on you, keeping track of goals, or having someone help you plan, just being held accountable will force you to stay focused, even on those days you don’t feel like it!

Accountability ensures action and can force you to follow through when a lack of energy would otherwise hold you back.

Here are some other apps that might help you hold yourself accountable:

• Coach.me – Personal coaching to help you stay on track and build better habits.
• GoalsOnTrack – Goal-setting and personal-productivity app that guides you through the process of setting (and reaching) goals.
• How to Stop Making Excuses When it Comes to Travel
• 13 Non-Travel Books That Changed My Life
• How to Change the “I’m Too Poor to Travel” Mindset

2. Devote time

Stuff always seems to come up, doesn’t it? Sure, I was planning to visit Iceland in May and then suddenly, May was here and I was busy.

Or maybe you decide today’s the day you’re going to plan your trip but then you forget you have laundry to do. My solution? Pick a day and time you are normally not busy (i.e., on Facebook) and devote that time to planning your trip.

Make it a consistent part of your schedule and develop a habit so that it doesn’t feel like a task you “have” to do; it becomes just something you do automatically.

Set aside thirty minutes each day to focus on travel. Turn it into part of your everyday routine. This time can be used to do research or read books and blogs. This will help you stay inspired and interested while helping you plan your next adventure. Schedule it into your calendar so you never let the day get away from you. It’s in your calendar. You can’t skip it.  

3. Read travel blogs

Reading about other travelers’ adventures can show you that it is easier to travel than you thought, provide advice and tips on the art of travel, and teach you about places you’ve never heard of. One day you’ll get sick of living vicariously through others, and you’ll go out and create your own travel stories. They will show you that yes, travel is realistic, practical, and financially possible.

Here is a list of my current favorite travel blogs that can help you out.  

4. Read travel books

While reading travel blogs is great, travel books are even better because they cut deep into a destination and open it up in a way a short blog post can’t.

And in that same vein, be sure to read books about the destination you are visiting so you can get a deeper understanding of the place. You can’t understand the location’s present if you don’t understand its past.

Here are a few travel books to help get your inspiration flowing:

• Tracks , by Robyn Davidson
• The Caliph’s House: A Year in Casablanca , by Tahir Shah
• A Year of Living Danishly , by Helen Russell
• In A Sunburned Country , by Bill Bryson
• Looking for Transwonderland , by Noo Saro-Wiwa
• Ten Years a Nomad , by me!

5. Learn a language

Join a class and pick up a language you might use on the road. Once you’ve started learning the language, you’ll hate to waste your new skill. And the only way to use it is to travel to where they speak it! Here are some apps and resources to help you learn:

• Spanish and Go

And here are some blog posts from language experts I know to get you started:

• How to Learn the Basics of Any Language in Four Steps
• How to Master Life, Language, and Travel

6. Take a break

If you’ve been on the road for a while, you’ve probably burnt out a bit. Travel isn’t always rainbows and unicorns, and spending a lot of time on the road can lead to burnout . That’s going to sap your motivation and might even have you thinking about home.

It did for me once (I got burnt out on my first trip and went home early), and the second I got home I face-smacked myself and said, “What was I thinking!”

I learned my lesson and found that a much better way to get your mojo back is to take a break. Instead of moving on to your next destination, stay where you are for as long as you need.

Volunteer .

Work at your hostel.

Start a blog .

Sit by the beach every day.

Whatever relaxes you, do that.  

7. Meet other travelers

Sometimes it can be hard to stay motivated if the people around you aren’t supportive of your desire to travel. If you’re struggling, here are some suggestions:

• Connect with others on social media
• Use the “Hangouts” app and local events on Couchsurfing to meetup with locals and travelers near you
• Find like-minded travelers on Meetup.com

Additionally, tune out the naysayers who don’t believe long-term travel is possible because you’ll see from all these people encouraging you that it really is.

An encouraging environment is a better environment! And a community of travelers telling you aren’t crazy and this is possible will drown out all the naysayers in the world.

If you’re like me, you go through bouts of motivation. You get super excited about a trip and then your mind moves on to something else, or the challenge of planning saps some of your motivation and you put it off until later.

But there’s only today, so use these tips to help stay motivated about your next trip.

Because one day, you’ll run out of tomorrows.  

Book Your Trip: Logistical Tips and Tricks

Book Your Flight Find a cheap flight by using Skyscanner . It’s my favorite search engine because it searches websites and airlines around the globe so you always know no stone is being left unturned.

Book Your Accommodation You can book your hostel with Hostelworld . If you want to stay somewhere other than a hostel, use Booking.com as it consistently returns the cheapest rates for guesthouses and hotels.

Don’t Forget Travel Insurance Travel insurance will protect you against illness, injury, theft, and cancellations. It’s comprehensive protection in case anything goes wrong. I never go on a trip without it as I’ve had to use it many times in the past. My favorite companies that offer the best service and value are:

• SafetyWing (best for everyone)
• InsureMyTrip (for those 70 and over)
• Medjet (for additional evacuation coverage)

Want to Travel for Free? Travel credit cards allow you to earn points that can be redeemed for free flights and accommodation — all without any extra spending. Check out my guide to picking the right card and my current favorites to get started and see the latest best deals.

Need Help Finding Activities for Your Trip? Get Your Guide is a huge online marketplace where you can find cool walking tours, fun excursions, skip-the-line tickets, private guides, and more.

Got a comment on this article? Join the conversation on Facebook , Instagram , or Twitter and share your thoughts!

Disclosure: Please note that some of the links above may be affiliate links, and at no additional cost to you, I earn a commission if you make a purchase. I recommend only products and companies I use and the income goes to keeping the site community supported and ad free.

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Traveling Without a Passport

Every Travel Quote Ever

Say goodbye to scouring the internet in search of inspirational travel quotes to keep you focussed on saving for that next big trip. Instead take a read through our list of every travel quote ever. We dare you to try and not be inspired.

Are we missing one of your favs? Share your own travel quote in the comments and we might just include it!

Inspirational Travel Quotes

“One’s destination is never a place, but a new way of seeing things.” – Henry Miller

“We travel not to escape life, but for life not to escape us.” – Unknown

“I am not a great book, I am not a great artist, but I love art and I love food, so I am the perfect traveller.” – Michael Palin

“I am not the same having seen the moon shine on the other side of the world.” – Mary Anne Radmacher

“He who does not travel does not know the value of men.” – Moorish proverb

“People don’t take trips, trips take people.” – John Steinbeck

“The best journeys in life are those that answer questions you never thought to ask.” ― Rich Ridgeway

“To travel is to evolve.” – Pierre Bernardo

Take the first step, the rest will follow. Book the ticket, apply for the job, send the email, jump into the water. The rest gets easier from there. – Abi from http://www.insidethetravellab.com/

“A person does not grow from the ground like a vine or a tree, one is not part of a plot of land. Mankind has legs so it can wander.” ― Roman Payne, The Wanderess

“Certainly, travel is more than the seeing of sights; it is a change that goes on, deep and permanent, in the ideas of living.” – Miriam Beard

“You don’t have to be rich to travel well.” – Eugene Fodor

“He who is outside his door has the hardest part of his journey behind him.” – Dutch Proverb

“Travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry, and narrow-mindedness, and many of our people need it sorely on these accounts. Broad, wholesome, charitable views of men and things cannot be acquired by vegetating in one little corner of the earth all one’s lifetime.” – Mark Twain

“He who would travel happily must travel light.” – Antoine de St. Exupery

“Wandering re-establishes the original harmony which once existed between man and the universe.” – Anatole France

“It is not down in any map; true places never are.” – Herman Melville

It’s never too late to have a life you love. Don’t ever feel like you’ve missed the boat, don’t have what it takes or can’t achieve your dreams. Instead of removing your dreams, remove the doubts and fears keeping you from them. It’s never, ever too late. – Phoebe from https://littlegreybox.net

“Without travel I would have wound up a little ignorant white Southern female, which was not my idea of a good life.” – Lauren Hutton

“I met a lot of people in Europe. I even encountered myself.” – James Baldwin

“I was not born for one corner. The whole world is my native land.” – Seneca

“Travelling — it leaves you speechless, then turns you into a storyteller.” – Ibn Battuta

“Our happiest moments as tourists always seem to come when we stumble upon one thing while in pursuit of something else.” — Lawrence Block

“Wherever you go, go with all your heart.” – Confucius

“Travel makes one modest. You see what a tiny place you occupy in the world.” – Scott Cameron

“I never travel without my diary. One should always have something sensational to read in the train.” – Oscar Wilde

“The first condition of understanding a foreign country is to smell it.” – Rudyard Kipling

“Once in a while it really hits people that they don’t have to experience the world in the way they have been told to.” – Alan Keightley

“Tourists visit. Travellers explore.” – Unknown

If you don’t do it now, when will you do it? -Monica from http://thetravelhack.com/

“Travelling is like flirting with life. It’s like saying, ‘I would stay and love you, but I have to go; this is my station.'” – Lisa St. Aubin de Teran

“I always wonder why birds stay in the same place when they can fly anywhere on Earth. Then I ask myself the same question.” – Harun Yahya

“Never go on trips with anyone you do not love.” – Ernest Hemingway

“Travel can be one of the most rewarding forms of introspection.” – Unknown

“The man who goes alone can start today; but he who travels with another must wait till that other is ready.” – Henry David Thoreau

“Travel and change of place impart new vigor to the mind.” – Seneca

“NOT I – NOT ANYONE else, can travel that road for you, You must travel it for yourself.” – Walt Whitman

“You don’t choose the day you enter the world and you don’t chose the day you leave. It’s what you do in between that makes all the difference.” – Anita Septimus

“Once you have traveled, the voyage never ends… The mind can never break off from the journey.” – Pat Conroy

“When you travel, remember that a foreign country is not designed to make you comfortable. It is designed to make its own people comfortable.” ― Clifton Fadiman

“I haven’t been everywhere but it’s on my list.” – Susan Sontag

“Remember that happiness is a way of travel – not a destination.” – Roy M. Goodman

Adventure Travel Quotes

“To my mind, the greatest reward and luxury of travel is to be able to experience everyday things as if for the first time, to be in a position in which almost nothing is so familiar it is taken for granted.” – Bill Bryson

“My life is shaped by the urgent need to wander and observe, and my camera is my passport.” ― Steve McCurry

“The more I traveled the more I realized that fear makes strangers of people who should be friends.” – Shirley MacLaine

The biggest addiction a person can have is discovering the unknown. Once it takes hold, there is no getting out and the only way to get your fix is by pushing yourself out of your comfort zone and exploring new horizons, cultural, and places. – Stephen from A Backpacker’s Tale 

“Man cannot discover new oceans unless he has the courage to lose sight of the shore.”― Andre Gide

“A mind that is stretched by a new experience can never go back to its old dimensions.” – Oliver Wendell Holmes

“If you’re not living on the edge, you’re taking up too much space.” ― Unknown

“A ship in harbor is safe, but that is not what ships are built for.” ― John A. Shedd

“A journey is like marriage. The certain way to be wrong is to think you control it.” – John Steinbeck

“Twenty years from now you will be more disappointed by the things you didn’t do than by the ones you did do. So throw off the bowlines, sail away from the safe harbor. Catch the trade winds in your sails. Explore. Dream. Discover.” ― Mark Twain

“All journeys have secret destinations of which the traveller is unaware.” ― Martin Buber

“May your adventures bring you closer together, even as they take you far away from home.” ― Trenton Lee Stewart

“Let us step into the night and pursue that flighty temptress, adventure.” ― J.K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince

“Make voyages! Attempt them… there’s nothing else.” – Tennessee Williams

“To awaken quite alone in a strange town is one of the pleasantest sensations in the world.” ― Freya Stark

“The whole object of travel is not to set foot on foreign land; it is at last to set foot on one’s own country as a foreign land.” ― G.K. Chesterton

The more borders you cross, the more your mind opens — Paul from Global Help Swap

“One travels to run away from routine, that dreadful routine that kills all imagination and all our capacity for enthusiasm.” – Ella Maillart

“Two roads diverged in a wood and I – I took the one less traveled by.” – Robert Frost

“If you reject the food, ignore the customs, fear the religion and avoid the people, you might better stay at home.” – James Michener

“When overseas you learn more about your own country, than you do the place you’re visiting.” – Clint Borgen

“Stop worrying about the potholes in the road and enjoy the journey.” – Babs Hoffman

“A good traveler has no fixed plans, and is not intent on arriving.” – Lao Tzu

“Every man can transform the world from one of monotony and drabness to one of excitement and adventure.” – Irving Wallace

“A traveller without observation is a bird without wings.” — Moslih Eddin Saadi

“I travel a lot; I hate having my life disrupted by routine.” – Caskie Stinnett

“We live in a wonderful world that is full of beauty, charm and adventure. There is no end to the adventures we can have if only we seek them with our eyes open.” – Jawaharial Nehru

“Travel is the only thing you buy that makes you richer.” – Unknown (thanks to Melissa Bond for the contribution!)

“Investment in travel is an investment in yourself.” – Matthew Karsten

“It is better to travel well then to arrive.” – Buddha

“Adventure is worthwhile.” – Aristotle

“We all become great explorers during our first few days in a new city, or a new love affair.” – Mignon McLaughlin

“We travel, some of us forever, to seek other states, other lives, other souls.” – Anais Nin

“Don’t tell me how educated you are, tell me how much you traveled.” – Mohammed

“No one realizes how beautiful it is to travel until he comes home and rests his head on his old, familiar pillow.” – Lin Yutang

“The traveler sees what he sees, the tourist sees what he has come to see.” – Gilbert K. Chesterton

“Adventure without risk is Disneyland.” – Doug Coupland

“If you wish to travel far and fast, travel light. Take off all your envies, jealousies, unforgiveness, selfishness and fears.” – Cesare Pavese

“How often I found where I should be going only by setting out for somewhere else.” – R. Buckminster Fuller

“I see my path, but I don’t know where it leads. Not knowing where I’m going is what inspires me to travel it.” – Rosalia de Castro

“I have wandered all my life, and I have also traveled; the difference between the two being this, that we wander for distraction, but we travel for fulfillment” – Hilaire Belloc

“If all difficulties were known at the outset of a long journey most of us would never start out at all.” – Dan Rather

“The use of travelling is to regulate imagination by reality, and instead of thinking how things may be, to see them as they are.” – Samuel Johnson

“Airplane travel is nature’s way of making you look like your passport photo.” – Al Gore

“Tourists don’t know where they’ve been, travellers don’t know where they’re going.” – Paul Theroux

“It is not fit that every man should travel; it makes a wise man better, and a fool worse.” – William Hazlitt

“You develop a sympathy for all human beings when you travel a lot.” – Shakuntala Devi

Which is the best tourism quote?

Pick your next destination on TourRadar.com !

Which is the best marketplace for travel tours?

It is TourRadar.com , that with more than 40,000 tours and 2,500 operators is the best place where to find your next destination.

Which is the best tour pic caption?

Why should i touring.

“With getting time away from work and your ‘normal’ life becoming more and more difficult, your time off is more valuable and precious than it’s ever been. Absolutely nobody has time for mediocre experiences and modern-day touring has adapted to fit these requirements. Nowadays group tours can be anything and everything: what you do, depends solely on you.”

Travis Pittman, TourRadar co-founder and CEO

Which is the best nature travel quote?

Find all our nature tours on TourRadar.com!

Jackie is a travel-addicted Canadian who currently resides in Vienna, Austria. When she’s not writing travel guides or reading her new favourite book, she’s planning her next weekend getaway somewhere in Europe.

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10 reasons to love travel

What does travel mean to you here are just 10 of the many reasons i love to travel….

• Travel Specialist

In today’s tech-obsessed world, social media may well be the perfect platform to showcase the world’s beauty to armchair travellers across the globe, but travel is so much more than just getting that perfect Instagram shot. Travel should be meaningful. It should excite and inspire you, rejuvenate and ground you, educate and challenge you, and most of all, it should humble you.

Travel gives us our greatest stories, our most cherished memories and countless irreplaceable learnings that we can choose to pay forward to others. It teaches us about ourselves and each other, it broadens our horizons and, just like a reset button, it forces us to refocus on what really matters.

Here’s what travel means to me…

For me personally, travel is a way of life. I was born into a travel-obsessed family and had already lived on three different continents by the time I started school, so wanderlust (and an often ridiculed hybrid accent) was inevitable for me. My sister and I are incredibly fortunate to have parents that insisted that travel was the best classroom and, thankfully, our school holidays were spent exploring fascinating places, both near and far.

Upon graduating university (and turning 21), I was given the greatest gift: the gift of travel. Armed with a round-the-world plane ticket and a sense of adventure, I took off on a six-month solo backpacking trip through Europe, Southern Africa and Australia and, without a doubt, it changed the way I saw the world. So, as a self-confessed travel addict, here are the 10 reasons why I love to travel.

1. Travel to leave our world a better place

I have been fortunate to work and travel with &Beyond for more than 13 years now and what inspires me most is our company ethos and unwavering commitment to care for the land, wildlife and people. Travelling with &Beyond has given me the rare privilege to actively take part in so many unforgettable and truly meaningful experiences, such as: witnessing endangered rhino being safely translocated; observing an elephant cow being collared for research and monitoring purposes; helping to relocate a vulnerable nest laid by an enormous and highly endangered sea turtle; spending a night in a traditional Maasai manyatta (homestead); and so much more. &Beyond ’s authentic, experiential travel not only enables travellers to participate, engage and learn, but it also allows them to travel with purpose and to help leave our world a better place.

2. Travel to meet different cultures

Travel exposes us to different cultures and ancient traditions and through these authentic encounters, we learn to embrace and celebrate both our similarities and our differences. Travel teaches us about humanity and gives us an appreciation, understanding and respect for different points of view and ways of life.

3. Travel to learn

Not all classrooms have four walls and travel is the best way to immerse yourself in geography, history, culture, gastronomy, languages, biology … you name it. Travel enriches the mind and educates us far beyond any textbook or travel guide. Not only do curious travellers learn about different landscapes, languages and lifestyles; glean fascinating facts while observing wild animals in their natural habitat; delve into a region’s history and taste the local flavours; but they also learn about themselves (and each other) along the way.

4. Travel to escape reality

We all need to fall off the radar and escape reality every once in a while. Travel allows us to enjoy complete anonymity in new and unexplored territories. It gives us absolute freedom to live in the moment and it allows us to be anyone, to go anywhere and to do anything. The best part of my six-month trip around the world, way back when, was the freedom of being able to just wake up and pick a spot anywhere on the map and find a way to get there. Travel enables us to be spontaneous and seek new experiences.

5. Travel to relax

Our lives are time-starved and technology-driven and, let’s be honest, it’s not often that we actually take the necessary time to de-stress and truly switch off. Travel allows us to escape life’s daily demands, dramas and deadlines and enables us to clear our minds. It encourages us to recharge our batteries and to truly disconnect (from our phones, Wi-Fi, emails, laptops, social media, etc.) in order to reconnect (with ourselves, each other and the natural environment).

6. Travel to explore

Travel takes us out of our comfort zones and inspires us to see, taste and try new things. It constantly challenges us, not only to adapt to and explore new surroundings, but also to engage with different people, to embrace adventures as they come and to share new and meaningful experiences with friends and loved ones. Whether you seek adrenaline and non-stop activity, or unapologetic siestas and ultimate relaxation, travel gives us the opportunity to explore with an open heart and an open mind.

7. Travel for humility

Without a doubt, travel is a crash course in humility. As we cross borders, and oceans, we gain true perspective. We learn to recognise and be grateful for all of the things we take for granted in our own lives, and we also gain an appreciation and respect for how others live. Travel teaches us to be tolerant, flexible and open-minded, and most of all it makes us humble.

8. Travel to eat

One thing you’ll never find on a suggested packing list is a diet. Leave it at home! Just make sure you bring a healthy appetite and a willingness to taste new flavours and sample all of the local delicacies. Remember, mimosas are totally acceptable at breakfast and dessert is always a good idea. Indulge, go back for seconds and exercise when you get home.

9. Travel to be transformed

Don’t just travel for travel’s sake. Travel to seek adventure and feel alive. Take part in authentic experiences that will not only change the way you see the world, but that will also encourage self-reflection, environmental awareness and global action to help protect and conserve our planet.

10. Travel to live out your bucket list dreams

Every traveller’s bucket list is different. Whether you long to watch the sun set over the Taj Majal, snowshoe on the side of an active volcano, witness Africa’s Big Five and the Great Migration, or find your Zen on a yoga retreat in the Himalayas, if you can dream it, you can do it. Travel is the best medicine and long may it continue to take our breath away and turn us all into storytellers (and committed custodians of our precious planet).

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Tourists’ Travel Motivations During Crises: Lessons from the COVID-19 Pandemic

• First Online: 02 March 2023

Cite this chapter

• Rasha Kassem 4 &
• Chanaka Ganepola 5  

234 Accesses

This study seeks to explore tourists’ travel motivation during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study presents findings from an online questionnaire sent to 166 tourists in various regions, including Europe, America, Australasia, Asia and Africa. This study identified seven travel motivators but found that the COVID-19 vaccine and guaranteed refund schemes are the prime motivators of future travel in all regions. Most younger participants consider the vaccine a prime motivator for post-COVID-19 travel. Although not as significant, hygiene is also identified as a travel motivator and is appreciated more by females than males. Moreover, the majority of participants in the age group (20–29 years old), those living with dependents and relatively low-income earners (income <$20,000), identified discounts on accommodation and travel as travel motivators. Understanding what may motivate tourists to travel is essential as it would help government agencies, travel agents, tourism marketers, transport systems and hospitality services cope with the current crisis more effectively. Additionally, this study summarises recovery strategies used to manage previous health crises as reported in the literature. This summary can be used as a toolkit or guide to managing health crises by practitioners and policymakers. Therefore, this study provides timely information about a recent and fatal crisis and can thus serve as part of the knowledge base in crisis planning.

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Exploring motivation via three-stage travel experience: how to capture the hearts of Taiwanese family-oriented cruise tourists

• Wen-Yu Chen 1 ,
• Yu-Hsiang Fang 1 ,
• Ya-Ping Chang 2 &
• Cheng-Yi Kuo 3  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  506 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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The cruise market has significant potential for family travel as birth rates continue to decline. To explore the reasons behind family cruise travel, passenger needs, and the three stages of cruise travel experience (anticipation, participation, and recall), this study employs qualitative research and in-depth survey methods. The study’s findings indicate that motivations for joining family cruise travel include "new experiences," "desire for cruise travel," "convenience," and "generating social topics/publicity." During the anticipation and recall stages, the most significant factors are the "port of call" and the "destination" of the cruise itinerary. Additionally, other important aspects include the dining options on the cruise. In the participation stage, the study reveals that cabins, entertainment, and special considerations for children hold particular significance. These results can provide valuable guidance in the planning of family cruise travel.

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Introduction.

Global tourism has witnessed significant growth in recent years, with the number of international tourists reaching approximately 1.326 billion in 2017, representing a 7% increase from the previous year (UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2021 ). The Asia-Pacific region accounted for a substantial portion of these tourists, with around 306 million visitors (Executive Yuan 2017 ). Among the contributing factors to the tourism market, the cruise industry has played a pivotal role, generating substantial value and promoting logistics business (Executive Yuan 2017 ). In 2018, the Cruise Lines International Association reported that approximately 28.5 million travelers embarked on cruises worldwide, with Asia experiencing a remarkable growth rate of 23% between 2013 and 2018, making it the third-largest cruise source market globally (CLIA 2018 a, 2018 b). The rapid development and prosperity of port cities in the Asia-Pacific region, including Taiwan, have been instrumental in driving the growth of the Asian cruise market (Chen 2016 ). Taiwan, with its advantageous geographical location, serves as a significant transportation hub and ranks among the top 10 cruise source markets in Asia (CLIA 2019 a, 2019 b, 2019 c; Tourism Bureau 2019 ).

However, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on the global tourism industry, leading to severe economic consequences across various sectors, including cruises (Gössling et al. 2020 ; Seyfi et al. 2020 ). In 2020, the number of global tourists plummeted by 73% compared to the previous year, highlighting the extent of the pandemic’s impact (UNWTO 2021 ). The cruise industry, in particular, faced unprecedented challenges as many countries implemented strict measures, including port closures, flight restrictions, and travel bans, to curb the spread of the virus (Liu and Chang 2020 ; Yuen et al. 2021 ). Consequently, the number of cruise ships and passengers in Asia declined significantly (CLIA 2020 ).

To recover from the pandemic’s aftermath, the cruise industry needs to regain the trust and confidence of travelers by understanding their motivations and demands based on previous experiences (Pan et al. 2021 ). Family travel, a crucial market segment in tourism, offers opportunities to enhance the quality of family life and functioning (Wu et al. 2021 ). Following the epidemic, a surge in revenge tourism commenced, leading to a gradual recovery of the international cruise market, with a particular focus on the Asian market (CTWANT 2023 ). Investigating the phenomenon of "revenge travel" and exploring tourists’ motivations and demands through a three-stage travel experience can help identify significant market niches and attractive themes in family cruise travel (Shadel 2020 ). Family travel not only contributes to children’s development (Li et al. 2020 ) but also strengthens family connections, fosters unity, and promotes interaction, identity, and shared values (Wang et al. 2018 ).

Considering the diverse composition of family travel groups, such as nuclear families, single parents with children, and multigenerational families, cruises offer a wide range of experiences encompassing dining, shopping, activities, entertainment, and relaxation. Furthermore, cruises eliminate the need for itinerary planning, transportation arrangements, and local accommodation bookings (Polat 2015 ). Travel experiences are subjective and influenced by personal factors, situational elements, and interpersonal interactions (Zatori et al. 2018 ). These experiences are shaped by various activities, facilities, and products, while travelers’ perceptions and memories evolve over time (Lyu et al. 2018 ). A comprehensive travel experience that encompasses the stages before, during, and after the journey is essential for meaningful and transformative travel (Matson-Barkat and Robert-Demontrond 2018 ). While cruise tourism in Western countries has been extensively studied, there is a relative scarcity of research on family and children’s cruise travel experiences in the Eastern cruise market (Wondirad 2019 ). Given the significant role of children in family cruise travel, it is crucial to consider the perspectives of parents, grandparents, and children, taking into account cultural and familial differences (Wu and Wall 2016 ).

To conduct research on family cruise travel, it is important for tourism scholars to familiarize themselves with systems theory, which considers a family as a complex system where each member and their interactions contribute to the overall functioning of the family unit (Bowen 1978 ). This theory suggests that the experience of family cruise travel is influenced by various factors and individuals within the family system. When applying systems theory to family cruise travel, several key aspects become relevant. Firstly, the concept of interconnectedness emphasizes the impact of family members on each other. During a cruise, family members share common spaces, engage in activities together, and rely on each other for support and coordination, which necessitates an understanding of these interconnected dynamics to navigate conflicts, balance individual preferences, and foster positive interactions. Secondly, the establishment of clear boundaries within the family system is crucial. On a cruise, family members may need to negotiate boundaries related to personal space, privacy, and the balance between togetherness and individual autonomy, ensuring a healthy equilibrium throughout the trip.

Effective communication is vital in family cruise travel, and systems theory underscores the significance of open and clear communication channels within the family system. This involves encouraging active listening, expressing needs and concerns, and practicing empathy to enhance family communication and address any challenges or conflicts that may arise during the cruise. Furthermore, recognizing and understanding the roles and expectations of family members is essential. Different family members may assume various roles such as trip planner, organizer, or decision-maker, and discussing these roles and expectations in advance promotes shared responsibility, reduces stress, and encourages a collaborative approach to family cruise travel. Lastly, adaptability is emphasized by systems theory as a crucial aspect within the family system. Unexpected situations may arise during a cruise, such as itinerary changes, weather conditions, or differing preferences among family members. Being flexible and adaptable enables the family to navigate these challenges and adjust their plans accordingly, contributing to a smoother and more enjoyable cruise experience.

To investigate family cruise travel experiences, a three-stage model is adopted. The anticipation stage involves examining family members’ expectations regarding equipment, meals, activities, and facilities (Jamal et al. 2019 ). The cruise participation stage encompasses various aspects such as customized arrangements, shore excursions, and the implementation of onboard facilities (Radic 2019 ). Finally, the recall stage explores whether the cruise vacation met expectations, identifies the most memorable experiences, and assesses the likelihood of taking a cruise for future family travel (Chen and Rahman 2018 ). By exploring family cruise travel through these three stages, valuable insights can be gained into the motivations and overall experience of family travelers.

Literature review

Revenge travel and cruise travel.

In the context of revenge travel and its association with cruise travel, it is important to acknowledge the profound challenges and setbacks faced by the tourism industry, including the cruise travel sector, in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Pan et al. ( 2021 ), the pandemic has had a detrimental impact on the tourism industry, resulting in a 10.4% decrease in GDP and the loss of 319 million jobs. Wang and Xia ( 2021 ) emphasize that despite people’s reluctance to be confined, their desire to travel has grown stronger, as reported by Shadel ( 2020 ) in The Washington Post (The Harris Poll 2020 ). Consequently, the concept of "revenge travel" has emerged, referring to the potential for tourism to make a remarkable resurgence as more countries reopen their borders to eager tourists. Individuals are seeking to alleviate pandemic fatigue and boredom by embarking on travel experiences, following extended periods of confinement due to lockdowns and quarantine regulations. Furthermore, revenge travel encompasses the notion of compensating for lost time during the pandemic, often reflecting individuals’ frustration and anger regarding the disruption of their plans and daily routines (Mauran 2022 ).

Instead of seeking compensation from a specific destination, revenge travel seems to be motivated by a genuine passion for travel. CNN ( 2022 ) reports that many travelers are now willing to allocate more financial resources to their vacations compared to previous years. Within the realm of leisure travel, cruise travel can be regarded as a prominent form due to its distinctive characteristics and the array of experiences it provides to passengers. Leisure travel, broadly defined, involves travel primarily undertaken for recreational, relaxation, and personal enjoyment purposes rather than for business or work-related reasons. It encompasses activities that enable individuals to unwind, explore new destinations, partake in leisurely pursuits, and escape from their daily routines (Wang and Xia 2021 ).

Cruise travel stands as one of the most lucrative, popular, and rapidly expanding sectors within the tourism industry. It combines elements of accommodation, leisure, entertainment, dining, and sightseeing, generating substantial revenue and employment opportunities across various locations (Han and Hyun 2019 ). As the European and American markets reach saturation, the cruise industry has shifted its focus toward developing the Asian market (Chen, 2016 ), which currently holds the position as the world’s third-largest cruise market, following North America and Western Europe (CLIA 2019 a, 2019 b, 2019 c). Modern cruise ships have evolved beyond mere transportation vessels to become floating resorts, offering enticing destinations, a wide range of leisure and entertainment options, diverse dining experiences, shopping facilities, theaters, and swimming pools (Toh et al. 2005 ). In response to changing holiday preferences, the cruise tourism industry has diversified its product offerings, introducing new destinations, revamped cruise experiences, innovative services, facilities, shore tourism activities, and themed cruises (Rodrigue and Notteboom 2013 ).

CLIA ( 2018 a, 2018 b) has identified 11 major trends in cruise travel: 1) Instagrammable experiences; 2) total restoration; 3) achievement travel; 4) personalized on-board technology; 5) conscious travel; 6) inaccessible destinations; 7) Generation Z preferences; 8) off-peak adventures; 9) working nomads; 10) female-centered cruising; and 11) solo travel. These trends reflect the changing needs and preferences of cruise customers and the industry’s response to those needs by combining nature, history, culture, technology, and new experiences to create a richer travel experience (Chen 2016 ). As the Asian cruise industry develops, there is a growing focus on family groups, providing an unforgettable cruise experience for all ages (Taiwan International Ports Corporation, Ltd. 2019 a, 2019 b). Disney Cruises is a cruise brand that specializes in serving parent-child families and has won the "Best Family Cruise" title for several years, with children’s programs and entertainment activities being their most popular features (Disney Cruise Line 2019 ). With Asian tourists being the largest group of parent-child families during the summer vacation, the cruise company has optimized parent-child activities and increased entertainment experiences, including partnering with Discovery to create exploration camps and recreational games for different age groups (Princess 2018 ). Cruise companies continue to innovate and cater to the changing needs of the family travel market through the design and planning of various cruise travel products (Radic 2019 ).

Family travel and motivations

Tourism is an essential element in personal development, as it provides a platform for various types of learning and broadens one’s horizons (Li et al. 2020 ). The family travel market is a large and expanding segment of the tourism industry. Family travel has evolved from a form of relaxation to a way of reconnecting with loved ones (Brey and Lehto 2008 ). Today, family travel may include three generations, large families, or single parents traveling with children (Schänzel and Yeoman 2015 ). Families travel together to create memories, bond, and engage in activities that facilitate children’s learning and development (Li et al. 2020 ). Family travel refers to a trip where at least two family members travel and spend more than 24 h away from home to enhance family cohesion and create lasting memories (Kennedy-Eden and Gretzel 2016 ). Family leisure is positively related to family satisfaction and cohesion (Lehto et al. 2012 ). Zabriskie and McCormick ( 2001 ) classify family leisure as either core or balanced, with the former being low-cost and easy, while the latter requiring more time, money, or planning. Although the frequency of balanced leisure may be lower, the experiences and memories created are often more significant. Family travel, as a form of balanced leisure, increases intimacy and cohesion among family members (Lehto et al. 2016 ), and contributes to the development of children.

Numerous studies have explored the decision-making process involved in family tourism. When planning a family trip, it is crucial to consider various factors, such as destination, vacation time, budget, attractions, activities, and accommodation, all of which require family members to discuss and agree upon. These decisions are influenced by the family’s situation, age, and socioeconomic status (Kang and Hsu 2004 ). As times have changed, family decision making has become more democratic, shifting from the traditional parent-dominated approach to a more child-influenced process (Jamal et al. 2019 ). Although children may not have the final say in decisions, they still play a crucial role in influencing the process (Curtale 2018 ).

Previous studies have primarily focused on cruise traveler satisfaction, value, and trust (Wu et al. 2018 ), motivation and experience (Hung and Petrick 2011 ; Han and Hyun 2018 ), the environmental impact of the cruise industry (MacNeill and Wozniak 2018 ), and the Western child cruise experience (Radic, 2019 ). With changing lifestyles and travel patterns, more Asians are opting for cruises as their preferred travel choice (Chen 2016 ). However, very few studies have examined Eastern family cruise travel, and there are some differences between Western and Asian tourists (Wu et al. 2018 ). For example, while Western children often desire to have their own cruise experiences and make new friends, Asian families tend to focus on creating shared memories (Wu et al. 2019 ).

The topic of travel motivation is significant and the push-pull factor is a commonly used theory to explain it. The push factor is driven by inner desires such as the need for relaxation, adventure, knowledge acquisition, family reunion, and pressure. On the other hand, the pull factor is driven by the unique attributes of the destination, such as recreational facilities, historical culture, natural resources, beaches, and scenery (Sung et al. 2015 ). Various studies have explored travel motivation, including adventure tourism loyalty (Sato et al. 2018 ), wildlife tourism satisfaction in national parks (Mutanga et al. 2017 ), and slow travel motivation (Özdemir and Çelebi 2018 ). Some studies have also examined the travel motivation of specific groups, such as elderly travelers abroad (Wijaya et al. 2018 ) and hearing-impaired backpackers (Ho and Peng 2017 ). According to Li et al. ( 2017 ), family travel is motivated by spending quality time with children, creating pleasant memories, learning and development, self-compensation, and compensation for children. Four dimensions of motivation have been identified in cruise tourism, including self-esteem and social recognition, escape and relaxation, learning, discovery, and thrill, and bonding (Han and Hyun 2019 ). Tourists take a cruise to get a worry-free and relaxing vacation and escape from everything (Mancini 2010 ). This study specifically focuses on the motivation of family members in choosing a cruise for family travel.

Tourist satisfaction and their willingness to revisit are directly influenced by their travel experience (Buhalis and Amaranggana 2015 ). According to Kong and Chang ( 2016 ), tourists construct their travel experience through various activities from the decision to travel until the end of the tour. Campos et al. ( 2015 ) suggested that travel experience is created through activity participation and interaction. The composition of travel experience is diverse and includes education, aesthetics, escape from reality, and entertainment (Stamboulisa and Skayannisb, 2003 ). Seyfi et al. ( 2020 ) noted that everyone has different travel experiences due to their different backgrounds, values, attitudes, beliefs, and environments, including within different generations of family members (Li et al. 2020 ). Walls et al. ( 2011 ) proposed that physical experience, human interaction, individual characteristics, and situational factors all affect travel experience.

Certain events can make a travel experience unforgettable (Kim et al. 2010 ), particularly when children participate in family travel and contribute to their parents’ enjoyment (Li et al. 2020 ). Unforgettable memories may be the most valuable source of information for tourists when deciding to revisit a specific destination (Chandralal and Valenzuela 2013 ) because people believe that past experiences are a reliable reference for future decisions (Chen and Rahman 2018 ). Kim et al. ( 2010 ) developed a scale with seven dimensions to measure memorable tourism experiences, including hedonism, refreshment, local culture, meaningfulness, knowledge, involvement, and novelty. This scale was adopted by Zhang et al. ( 2017 ) to explore Korean tourists’ perception image, memorable tourism experience, and willingness to revisit China, and by Seyfi et al. ( 2020 ) to develop a scale for memorable cultural tourism experiences with six dimensions: prior perceived significance of the experience, authenticity, engagement, cultural exchange, culinary attraction, and quality of service.

Several studies have identified multiple stages of travel experience, such as the five stages of recreational experience proposed by Clawson and Knetsch ( 1966 ): anticipation, outbound, on-site experience, return, and recall stages. Park and Santos ( 2016 ) discussed tourist experience using the three stages of before, during, and after travel, and Radic ( 2019 ) used the three stages of pre-travel planning and decision making, cruise participation, and reinterpretation and evaluation to study children’s experience with cruises. However, regardless of the number of stages, a memorable, interesting, and attractive experience can occur in each stage. Therefore, this study focuses on the three stages of travel experience and their application to family cruise travel.

Methodology

Research process and subjects.

To gain a deeper understanding of the respondents’ memories, feelings, and opinions about their own experiences, this research utilizes in-depth interviews. Qualitative research methods are necessary to explore the "why" behind the respondents’ experiences and obtain more complete information (Milena et al. 2008 ; Patton 2005 ). In-depth interviews are used with content analysis to collect interviewees’ opinions, views, and attitudes about a particular incident to gain a deeper understanding of the issue (Tsaur and Huang 2015 ). The three steps of content analysis, including dividing and condensing, coding, and establishing category and theme, are applied to improve the quality of inferences and provide an understanding of the knowledge and phenomena of the research (Downe‐Wamboldt 1992 ; Erlingsson and Brysiewicz 2017 ). Content analysis is also suitable for more difficult, special, and sensitive fields (Bogner et al. 2009 ).

Consequently, qualitative research was employed in the present study to gather pertinent information. Initially, the questionnaire for the in-depth interviews was designed based on previous research. The questions were subsequently revised after undergoing expert review, which involved four professionals: a cruise tourism expert, a travel agent, and two scholars specializing in tourism-related fields. The expert interviews aided in shaping the questionnaire for the subsequent stage of in-depth family interviews (please refer to Fig. 1 for the research framework flow). The experts were invited to review and modify the questionnaire, offering suggestions to enhance its design. Table 1 provides background information on the four experts.

The research framework involved utilizing expert interviews to help formulate the questionnaire used in the subsequent phase of conducting in-depth family interviews.

Furthermore, to identify suitable cruise travel families for this study, the participants were primarily recruited through the following sources: (1) Families who had previously taken cruises were introduced to the researchers by experienced tour guides who had led cruise tours. (2) Qualified volunteers were invited from cruise travel Facebook communities. (3) Employing the snowball sampling method, the researchers reached out to families who had previously traveled on cruises through referrals from cruise travel agencies and interviewees who had organized cruise trips. The interviewed family members primarily consisted of those who had at least one experience of cruise travel and had traveled on cruises with their children. Only these families were selected as participants for this study.

A total of 13 families were interviewed to explore their motivations and experiences of cruise travel, while the dimensions of cruise tourism services were examined through a literature review. The initial scale was evaluated for content and face validity by the experts, all of whom held master’s degrees or higher education, with three of them having experience in leading family groups. The questionnaire for the in-depth family interviews was divided into three parts: "before (anticipation)," "during (participation)," and "after (recall)" of the cruise travel, in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the respondents’ experiences.

Development of research questionnaires and data collection

Cruising is a mode of transportation that combines travel and lodging, offering a range of amenities, activities, and shore excursions (Sun et al. 2014 ). In recent years, there has been a surge in innovative facilities, routes, destinations, and exclusive experiences (Rodrigue and Notteboom 2013 ). In Asia, cruise tourism has gained popularity with great potential (Chen 2016 ). Theme cruises have emerged as a trend, and they can be categorized into three types: specific themes with onboard activities and arrangements, specific groups such as seniors and parent-child travelers, and charter boats where the itinerary is planned by a corporation or organization (Weaver 2011 ). Consequently, this research defines cruise travel as the use of cruises as the primary means of transportation, combined with lodging, dining, entertainment, and shore excursions.

Family travel involves the departure of at least two family members from their home for a period exceeding one day (Kennedy-Eden and Gretzel 2016 ). According to Gram ( 2005 ), the objective of family travel is to engage in collective activities, explore new destinations, and forge lasting memories as a family. Parents dedicate their time, effort, and finances to curate an unforgettable vacation experience for their children (Hilbrecht et al. 2008 ). As people live longer, the structure of families is undergoing vertical development, with grandparents increasingly developing strong bonds with their grandchildren, leading to a growing trend of traveling together (Schänzel and Yeoman 2015 ).

In Taiwan, the family composition has witnessed significant changes in recent times. Traditionally, Taiwanese families adhered to the nuclear family model, consisting of two parents and their children. However, social and economic factors have contributed to the evolution of family composition. Currently, the most prevalent family compositions in Taiwan include nuclear families, single-parent families, and multi-generational families comprising three generations (National Development Council 2023 ). Understanding the dynamics of family composition holds paramount importance in the context of family cruise travel for several reasons.

Firstly, tailored services are necessary to address the distinct needs and preferences associated with different family compositions. By comprehending the family composition within their target market, cruise operators can customize their offerings and amenities to cater to the specific requirements of each family type. For instance, single-parent families may benefit from accommodations designed for smaller groups or specialized activities tailored to their needs. Secondly, accommodation considerations play a crucial role, as family cruise ships must provide suitable lodging options for families with varying compositions. This may involve offering larger cabins or connecting rooms to accommodate nuclear families or multi-generational families. Understanding the family composition assists cruise operators in allocating resources and designing accommodations accordingly.

Thirdly, activity planning should take into account the diverse interests and preferences of different family compositions, both onboard and during shore excursions. By considering the family composition, cruise operators can provide a wide range of activities and experiences that cater to the specific needs and desires of each family type. This ensures the participation and enjoyment of all family members throughout the cruise. Lastly, pricing and package strategies can be tailored based on family composition. For instance, family packages may include discounts for children or special rates for single parents. Understanding the family composition enables cruise operators to develop pricing strategies that appeal to different family types and maximize their market reach.

Consequently, comprehending the family composition in Taiwan is of great significance in the realm of family cruise travel, as it empowers cruise operators to offer customized services, appropriate accommodations, diverse activities, and suitable pricing structures for various family types. By addressing the specific needs and preferences associated with each family composition, cruise operators can enhance the overall travel experience and attract a broader spectrum of family travelers. Furthermore, within the context of this research, a family traveler is defined as a parent or single parent who brings at least one child under the age of 18, with or without the inclusion of grandparents. The travel experience, as defined by this research, encompasses the various encounters tourists face at different stages of their trip (Radic 2019 ). Considering the nature of cruise travel, this research divides the travel experience into three stages: the anticipation stage prior to boarding the cruise, the cruise participation stage, and the recall stage. Hence, travel experience is delineated as the three stages of the travel journey, allowing for an examination of distinct experiences at each stage.

Three stages of cruise travel experience

The interview questions for this study are based on Hung and Petrick’s ( 2011 ) research, which identified four categories of motivation for cruise travel: self-esteem and social recognition, escape and relaxation, learning, discovery, and thrill, and bonding. The study focuses on the three stages of cruise travel experience: anticipation, participation, and recall, drawing on Juan and Chen’s ( 2011 ) exploration of Taiwanese cruise passengers’ behavior at different stages, the factors influencing cruise vacation decisions (Bahja et al. 2018 ), and research on children’s cruise experiences (Radic 2019 ).

In the anticipation stage, Juan and Chen ( 2011 ) found that price, trip duration, desires of companions, activities, and facilities were the main determinants of cruise trip selection. However, as this study focuses on family travel, desires of companions were modified to desires of family members. Bahja et al. ( 2018 ) examined the relative importance of six factors in cruise customers’ decision-making process: cruise vacation price, duration, distance from the cruise port, itinerary, environmental friendliness of the cruise line, and online reviews. Radic ( 2019 ) found that cruise brand, activities, and ports of call were significant considerations for tourists. Consistent with these studies, the factors considered by cruise tourists in this study were price, number of days, cruise brand, activities, equipment, itinerary (port of call and destination), family members’ desires, and online reviews of cruise ships. The study further explores the differences in family members’ considerations for cruise travel during the anticipation and recall stages.

Service dimensions during the cruise travel experience stages

Drawing on previous research on group package travel (Wang et al. 2000 ), Taiwanese cruise travelers’ behavior at different experience stages (Juan and Chen 2011 ), cruise experience (Hwang and Han 2014 ), and factors influencing Taiwanese women’s choice of cruise travel (Chen et al. 2019 ), the study developed 11 in-depth interview questions. These questions cover a range of aspects such as cruise characteristics, cabins, restaurants, facilities, entertainment activities, tour guides, shopping, exclusive activities for children, work teams, self-financed activities, and other relevant factors.

The experts have revised the questions, resulting in the following dimensions of motivation. For the motivation dimension of self-esteem and social recognition, the aspects are as follows: 1. Impress others; 2. Receive high praise from others; 3. Feel like a better person; 4. Obtain a high-quality vacation; 5. Enhance self-worth; 6. Achieve a sense of accomplishment; 7. Capture exotic photos to show off to friends. For the motivation dimension of escape and relaxation, the aspects are as follows: 1. Have fun; 2. Enjoy the freedom to do what I want; 3. Escape from everyday life; 4. Relax physically and mentally. For the motivation dimension of learning/discovery and novelty/excitement, the aspects are as follows: 1. Enjoy nature; 2. Gain knowledge; 3. Experience other cultures; 4. Enjoy exciting activities. For the motivation dimension of socialization, the aspects are as follows: 1. Make new friends; 2. Meet different people. For the motivation dimension of interpersonal connection, the aspects are as follows: 1. My friends or family members want to go on a cruise travel; 2. I can interact with my friends or family members during the trip.

The experts made several modifications to the factors that influence customers’ choices in the anticipation and recall stages. These factors include price, duration of travel, cruise brand, activities, cruise equipment, cruise itinerary (destination and ports of call), family members’ desire for cruise travel, online reviews, and travel agency. Cruise reviews, including online reviews, newspapers, magazines, and word of mouth, replaced online reviews. In the participation stage, the experts recommended that cruise tonnage be used as a reference criterion for cruise features, and added court and cinema to facilities, friendliness to tour leaders as an important consideration, and duty-free shopping to the shopping section. The service enthusiasm of the service team was also added as a criterion. The experts also proposed two types of briefing for tourists, one for participation in activities at their own expense and another for the introduction to tourist attractions and transportation from the pier to the tourist attractions. Based on these modifications, the experts suggested some service dimensions for the participation stage that would be further explored in the follow-up in-depth interviews.

This study conducted in-depth interviews with family tourists through online video. The interviews lasted for 30 min to 1 h and were recorded with consent, with one family member representing and sharing the thoughts and opinions of other family members. Thirteen families were interviewed, and the respondents were referred to as A-M. The study provides demographic data, motivations, and descriptions of the three-stage service aspects of the cruise travel experience: anticipation, experience, and recall. The majority of the interviewees were middle-aged parents with the final say in cruise travel, with 38.5% being male and 61.5% being female. 46.2% of the interviewees were aged 42–50. Regarding family income, 69.2% were double-income families, and 30.8% were single-income families. Most of the interviewees (76.9%) had a family income of over TWD 140,001. Less than half (46.2%) worked in the business industry, and the majority held a bachelor’s degree (53.8%). Nuclear families accounted for 69.2%, followed by extended families (23.1%) and single-parent families (7.7%). The largest group of travelers was 4–6 people (46.2%), and the largest percentage of accompanying children was 1 (53.8%), followed by 2 (38.5%), and 3 (7.7%), with a maximum of 20 children. The age range of the children was 0–6 years old (nine children), 7–12 years old (seven children), and 13–18 years old (four children). The largest destination was Northeast Asia (69.2%), followed by Europe (15.4%), Southeast Asia (7.7%), and Mexico (7.7%). The most common travel duration was 2–7 days (84.6%), and 53.8% of the interviewees indicated that they had gone on a cruise once, followed by four times (30.8%) and twice (15.4%). Please see Table 2 .

Furthermore, to establish the validity of the interview items and analyze the data, content analysis was employed in this study. The initial step in the data analysis process involved extracting the units of analysis. As per Wang et al. ( 2009 ), graduate students specializing in tourism marketing were invited to serve as judges and perform naming and content categorization based on the verbatim transcripts. In this study, graduate students from the tourism research institute with practical experience and an academic background in tourism were selected as Judges A and B. Both judges carefully read and categorized each basic unit of analysis, repeating the process until a consensus was reached. Interjudge and intrajudge reliability tests were subsequently conducted to assess consistency among different judges and over different time periods for the same judges, respectively.

To ensure the reliability of the classifications, intrajudge and interjudge reliability tests were conducted at different time periods. Keaveney ( 1995 ) suggests that intrajudge and interjudge reliability should exceed 0.80. After one week, Judge A and Judge B were asked to classify the data again for the intrajudge reliability test. Additionally, Judge C, a project director with 11 years of experience in the travel agency industry, was invited to classify the data and conduct the interjudge reliability test. The results demonstrated an intrajudge reliability of 0.96 and an interjudge reliability of 0.97, indicating the reliability of the classification results in this study. The interview transcripts of family tourists were analyzed and compiled into a data summary presented in Table 3 . Moreover, to enhance the credibility and validity of the content analysis results, this study employed not only triangulation among Judges A, B, and C but also utilized the data triangulation method proposed by Mhyre ( 2010 ). By comparing and confirming the perspectives of the interviewed family participants, travel agency expert, cruise industry expert, and tourism scholars, the study achieved the purpose and effectiveness of data triangulation.

Anticipation stage

The majority of interviewees expressed their desire for a high-quality travel experience, which is influenced by the characteristics, quality, and level of the cruise ship, as it can enhance their self-esteem and social recognition.

Obtaining top-notch travel experiences is the paramount aspect of embarking on a cruise, as it eliminates the need for personal itinerary and meal arrangements.

You know, considering a cruise as an accomplishment is important because it’s like fulfilling a personal goal. When there’s a new cruise available, you can’t help but feel excited to embark on it and experience something new. It’s a way to discover and understand yourself better, which is truly fulfilling.

In terms of seeking escape and relaxation, all interviewees mentioned that cruising is an ideal way for families to unwind and rejuvenate their bodies, minds, and souls, as it saves transportation time and includes accommodation, food, and activities.

You know, one of the things I love about being on a cruise is that internet access can be quite pricey. So, I’ve made a conscious choice to disconnect from the online world for a little while and simply relax. It’s a chance to take a break from constant connectivity and truly unwind during my cruise experience.

Travel has the power to uplift your spirits, with a cruise offering the added benefits of delightful culinary experiences and a plethora of engaging activities. Moreover, the opportunity to disembark at various destinations for sightseeing adds to the overall relaxation and enjoyment of the trip.

Additionally, cruising provides opportunities for learning/discovery and novelty/stimulation, as it exposes children to different cultures through various activities and services.

On a cruise, you’ll encounter people from diverse countries, alongside a wide range of activities and gourmet dining options. It’s an incredible opportunity to immerse yourself in various cultures and expand your children’s international perspectives. They can gain a broader understanding of the world by experiencing different customs and interacting with people from around the globe.

The cruise offers a plethora of activities for everyone to engage in, especially children who have the chance to independently explore and discover new things. This self-driven exploration can lead to valuable personal growth and learning experiences for them.

Although socialization is not a primary motivation, it was found that cruising can foster social connections with old friends and increase family cohesion.

When I travel with friends and family, my focus primarily remains on spending time with them rather than actively seeking new acquaintances.

You know, one of the great things about being on a cruise is that using mobile phones is not as common. This actually works out in our favor because it means the family gets to spend more time together. Without the constant distraction of phones, we all actively participate in activities together, strengthening our family relationships and creating lasting memories. It’s a wonderful opportunity to truly connect with one another and make the most of our time together on the cruise.

Furthermore, this study identified other motivations such as the desire for new experiences, the convenience of cruising, and the potential for generating social topics and publicity. In this stage, the interviewees ranked the following factors in order of importance, with 1 being the most important and 9 being the least important: itinerary (port of call, destination), price, travel days, brand, equipment, activities, reviews (online, newspapers and magazines, and word of mouth from relatives and friends), family members’ travel desire, and travel agencies. The mean value was 4.00, and the standard deviation was 2.16, as shown in Table 4 .

Participation stage

Families take into consideration various features such as tonnage, style, and age when selecting a cruise.

I intend to select a cruise ship that possesses substantial tonnage and offers a comparatively high level of stability.

Considering the presence of my children, my preference lies in selecting a family-oriented cruise ship that caters to their needs and provides a suitable environment for them.

The newly launched cruise ship offers upgraded facilities and rooms, which are both modern and superior in quality.

All interviewees preferred cabins with balconies or external windows, and expressed concern about the size of the beds.

Having a balcony is a must when embarking on a cruise, as it adds an element of pleasure to the experience. The ability to savor a cup of coffee or enjoy breakfast on the balcony is truly delightful.

I desire a more spacious cruise cabin to ensure a higher level of comfort during my stay.

When embarking on a cruise, the aspects of dining and resting take center stage, making the size, comfort, and amenities of the bed crucial factors to consider.

The diversity of restaurant options, including Chinese cuisine and kids’ bars, was also a significant consideration.

The restaurant ought to offer a diverse selection of dishes that cater to both adults and children, providing ample choices for everyone.

I would prioritize considering a cruise ship that provides Chinese cuisine as an option, as it can be comforting to have familiar food available in case I am not accustomed to other cuisines.

Essential facilities such as water facilities, swimming pools, and courts were important, along with entertainment options such as shows.

A swimming pool, particularly one with a water slide, is a necessity as our children thoroughly enjoy water play.

Ample space for recreational activities, such as basketball courts and table tennis rooms, is essential to ensure that everyone can participate and enjoy playing together.

The presence of visually captivating shows or performances holds significant importance, as well as the availability of evening venues for entertainment, considering that certain places like casinos are not suitable for children.

While strolling around, one might encounter bustling crowds of people, indicating the presence of impromptu performances that can pleasantly catch you by surprise.

Our family thoroughly enjoys open-air cinemas, where we can leisurely recline and relish movies accompanied by the refreshing sea breeze.

Simple souvenirs were preferred for shopping, while parents emphasized the importance of children’s exclusive activities and programs.

During shopping hours, the outlet often offers clearance prices, providing excellent opportunities to purchase items at significantly reduced and affordable rates.

The primary focus of our shopping is not on high-end consumption. Instead, we tend to select items that can be used as gifts upon disembarking from the cruise ship.

Given that my child is quite young, I will request the assistance of the kids club in looking after them, thereby granting me the opportunity to enjoy some personal space and leisure time.

In order to accommodate family outings, which primarily revolve around children, it is essential to have dedicated activities specifically designed for them.

Good service was a priority, as long as basic needs were met.

The housekeepers play a crucial role as they not only provide directions to your room if needed but also engage in friendly interactions with the children, adding a touch of interactivity to the experience.

The event staff will inquire about our requirements and ensure that the services we need are provided to us.

Families also planned their own shore tourism activities and placed a high value on security.

Safety, particularly when traveling with children, should be prioritized and given heightened attention on a cruise ship.

Recall stage

During the recall stage, family members have varying factors to consider when planning their next cruise travel. These factors are ranked in order of importance, with 1 being the most important and 9 being the least important. The primary considerations are itinerary, including the port of call and destination, followed by the number of days, brand, price, facilities, family members’ desire for a cruise, activities, evaluation, and travel agencies. Additionally, food is an important factor with a mean score of 4.00 and a standard deviation of 1.00, as shown in Table 5 .

Tables 4 and 5 present comparative analyses of factor rankings in two distinct stages, namely the anticipation stage and the recall stage. These stages correspond to the decision-making processes of individuals regarding their upcoming cruise travel. The focus is placed on evaluating the relative significance of various factors in the decision-making hierarchy. The following discussion summarizes the key findings derived from comparing the two tables:

In both the anticipation and recall stages, itinerary emerges as the foremost influential factor, as it attains the highest ranking in both tables. However, there exists a slight disparity in the mean scores and standard deviations associated with itinerary between the two stages. The factor of price consistently retains a considerable level of importance in both stages. Nonetheless, its ranking undergoes a transition from the second position in the anticipation stage to the fourth position in the recall stage. Notably, the mean score for price exhibits an increase in the recall stage as compared to the anticipation stage. Travel days continue to hold significance as a factor influencing decision-making in both the anticipation and recall stages. However, there is a change in its ranking, with travel days occupying the third position in the anticipation stage and the second position in the recall stage.

The importance attributed to brand remains relatively stable across both stages. Although there is a slight alteration in its ranking, the variance is minimal. Equipment. The significance of equipment exhibits consistency in both the anticipation and recall stages, with only a slight enhancement in its mean score during the recall stage. Activities, Reviews, Family members’ travel desire, and Travel agencies. The rankings of these factors differ between the anticipation and recall stages while maintaining a consistent overall trend of importance. Notably, food emerges as a vital factor during the recall stage, attaining a mean score of 4.00 and a standard deviation of 1.00.

To summarize, while certain factors retain their importance throughout both the anticipation and recall stages, there are disparities in rankings, as well as minor variations in mean scores and standard deviations for specific factors. Furthermore, the recall stage introduces food as a salient consideration, which is not explicitly highlighted in the anticipation stage.

Conclusion and discussion

The study’s findings revealed that motivation for cruise travel varied across several aspects. The "self-esteem and social recognition" aspect aimed to improve the quality of tourism and achieve a sense of accomplishment. "Escape and relax" emphasized relaxation of the body and mind. "Learning/discovering and novel/stimulating" involved experiencing diverse cultures and discovering new things. Experiencing a variety of cultures and uncovering novel aspects can be both educational and exciting. This parallels the concept of immersing oneself in the distinctive local essence of a culture, which has the potential to enhance tourists’ satisfaction (Dai et al. 2019 ). "Socialization" referred to meeting new people and making friends. "Interpersonal connection" pertained to the interaction between family members and friends. The results of "escape and relax" and "learning/discovering and novel/stimulating" were consistent with those of Hung and Petrick’s ( 2011 ) study.

In the Hsu and Li ( 2017 ) research, Hsu and Li directed their attention towards emerging markets in Asia, particularly Mainland China and Hong Kong. Their objective was to create a cruise motivation scale that encompassed several factors including novelty, escape, nature, leisure, social interaction, relaxation, relationship, and isolation. However, the present study shifts its focus to the motivations of family-oriented cruise tourists during the three-stage travel experience. The findings of this study indicate that family interaction holds greater importance compared to socialization. Additionally, the study identifies other motivations such as the pursuit of new experiences, a desire for cruise travel, convenience, and the generation of social topics or publicity.

The participation and recall stages of cruise travel planning highlighted the importance of itinerary, followed by the number of travel days, cruise brand, travel agency, and meals. In summary, Taiwan’s cruises are primarily chartered, and it is suggested to develop additional ports of call to strengthen tourists’ behavioral intentions while planning the itinerary. Additionally, travel agencies should differentiate their marketing and services to attract consumers. In contrast to Westerners, Asians prefer spending time together in activities (Chen et al. 2016 ), which can be attributed to the individualism cultural dimension theory (Hofstede 2001 ). Therefore, more activities should be designed for parent-child participation, which can enhance their relationship through family travel (Wu et al. 2019 ). The study also found that consumers attach considerable importance to the tonnage of cruise ships, as larger ships offer more facilities and activities.

According to Han and Hyun ( 2019 ), cruise travel is also motivated by learning, exploration, and excitement. Facilities such as waterslides and rock climbing are particularly appealing to children. With the rise of the internet, cruise companies can utilize social media platforms like Facebook, YouTube, and internet celebrities for advertising. Previous studies on cruises have examined tourist satisfaction, environmental impact, and the effects on ports. For instance, Wu et al. ( 2018 ) investigated the satisfaction and quality of experience of cruise tourists. However, these studies have largely focused on the Western cruise market, and there has been relatively little research on family cruise travel with children or the Asian cruise market (Wondirad 2019 ). Furthermore, the participation stage of cruise travel is seldom explored. Radic ( 2019 ) divided the experience into three stages: pre-tour planning and decision making, cruise participation stage, and reinterpretation and evaluation, to investigate children’s experiences on cruises.

Based on the study’s findings, family members are motivated to go on cruises to seek new experiences, convenience, generate social topics/publicity, and fulfill their desire to travel. In the anticipation and recall stages of their travel experience, tourists prioritize the cruise itinerary, while during the participation stage, they value cabin space, exclusive activities for children, and clubs that cater to family members’ needs. Family travel is an opportunity for children to explore the world, foster interests and interpersonal interaction, and strengthen familial relationships. To attract more families to choose cruise travel, tourism operators and cruise companies should tailor their strategies to the needs and motivations of their target market. However, the COVID-19 pandemic may negatively impact travel choices, and cruise companies should adapt by tailoring their offerings to suit different demands and motivations.

Taiwan stands as one of the top ten cruise tourist markets in Asia, making significant practical contributions (CLIA 2019 a, 2019 b, 2019 c). The number of tourists continues to grow, particularly in the parent-child segment, leading to the emergence of numerous parent-child hotels, restaurants, attractions, and tourism options. Engaging children in outdoor activities during family trips enables them to learn through hands-on experiences. By interacting with parents and receiving guidance, children can explore the world, develop interests, socialize, and strengthen family bonds (Global views 2023 ).

To attract more tourists to choose cruises for family trips, tourism operators and shipping companies must understand the motivations behind tourists’ choices, especially considering that modern travelers tend to avoid group travel, and cruise travel is a niche market. Hence, it is crucial to develop corresponding strategies. This study aims to collect and analyze factors valued by family tourists throughout the three stages of cruise travel. Based on interviews, the following suggestions are proposed, 1. Increase advertising exposure. 2. Introduce different cruise fleets or brands. 3. Offer new destinations and short-day travel arrangements. 4. Implement differentiated marketing strategies for travel agencies. 5. Enhance on-board activities, software, and hardware adjustments and updates.

These research findings can serve as references for future operators seeking to attract family groups. Additionally, they provide insight into improving the criteria for the anticipation stage, guiding itinerary design, and shaping sales considerations during the recall stage. Ultimately, these efforts aim to make cruising the top choice for families who have never experienced it before or for those who have taken a cruise and wish to repeat the experience.

This study had several limitations that should be acknowledged. Firstly, the sample size was small, consisting of only 13 families who were interviewed using a snowballing research method. Moreover, the interviews were conducted with only one family member, which may not have fully captured the opinions and perspectives of other family members. The reliance on a single interviewee could limit the comprehensiveness of the data. Additionally, family cruises are relatively uncommon in Taiwan, which posed challenges in recruiting participants, particularly children. As a result, some participants, especially children, may have had blurred memories or difficulties expressing themselves, potentially impacting the accuracy and depth of their responses.

To address these limitations and provide more comprehensive insights, future research could explore the use of a simple closed questionnaire. This method may facilitate children’s responses and mitigate some of the challenges associated with in-depth interviews. By employing a questionnaire-based approach, a larger sample size could be obtained, increasing the generalizability of the findings. Furthermore, the findings from this study can serve as a valuable reference for designing future questionnaires, ensuring the inclusion of relevant aspects related to family cruise travel. It is also worth noting that future research could consider exploring cultural and regional differences in family composition and their impact on family cruise travel. By investigating these factors, a deeper understanding of how cultural and regional nuances influence the preferences, needs, and experiences of family travelers in the context of cruises could be gained. This would contribute to a more comprehensive analysis of the target market and provide valuable insights for cruise operators and tourism professionals seeking to cater to diverse family compositions in different cultural and regional contexts.

Data availability

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are included within the article.

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Chen, WY., Fang, YH., Chang, YP. et al. Exploring motivation via three-stage travel experience: how to capture the hearts of Taiwanese family-oriented cruise tourists. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 506 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01986-3

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Demographic factors and travel motivation among leisure tourists in Tanzania

International Hospitality Review

ISSN : 2516-8142

Article publication date: 3 April 2020

Issue publication date: 14 July 2020

To examine demographic factors and travel motivations among leisure tourists in Tanzania. Specifically by examining the influence of demographic factors on travel motivation among local and international leisure tourists in Tanzania.

Design/methodology/approach

Approach is quantitative and applied descriptive statistics, independent t -test and ANOVA.

The findings showed that age, gender and family size as demographic factors significantly influenced travel motivation among local and international leisure tourists.

Research limitations/implications

Future studies to consider different approaches including collection of data during the peak season, use qualitative method and conduct studies in other parts of the country to explore demographic factors and travel motivations of tourists.

Practical implications

To assist tourism stakeholders in their design of promotional tools to market tourism products/services to different tourists as opposed to homogeneous marketing campaigns.

Originality/value

Examined the influence of demographic factors and travel motivation among local and international leisure tourists in the context of Tanzania.

Demographic factors

Travel motivation.

• Leisure tourists

Kara, N.S. and Mkwizu, K.H. (2020), "Demographic factors and travel motivation among leisure tourists in Tanzania", International Hospitality Review , Vol. 34 No. 1, pp. 81-103. https://doi.org/10.1108/IHR-01-2020-0002

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2020, Nasra Shoka Kara and Kezia Herman Mkwizu

Published in International Hospitality Review . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

Travel motivation is commonly acknowledged as a crucial concept to most tourism professionals and theorists ( Lam and Hsu, 2006 ). Travel motivation has been known as a driving force behind understanding behavior ( Venkatesh, 2006 ). The concept of travel motivation is not new ( Pearce and Caltabiano, 1983 ). Researchers around the globe have applied travel motivation to determine individual's satisfaction level ( Snepenger et al. , 2006 ; Lemmetynen et al. , 2016 ; Celik and Dedeoglu, 2019 ; Preko et al. , 2019 ), predict leisure participation levels ( Yan and Halpenny, 2019 ), identify travel patterns ( Pearce, 1987 ; Cavagnaro and Staffieri, 2015 ), understand tourists’ travel decisions and consumption behavior ( Chang et al. , 2015 ) as well as to develop more effective strategies and policies to increase demand for tourism ( Heung et al. , 2001 ; Papatheodorou, 2006 ). The complex nature of this concept has pushed many researchers to come up with different travel motives. However, the central themes behind it revolved around push and pull factors/motives. Push and pull factors have been extensively employed to assess tourists' travel motivations ( Kanagaraj and Bindu, 2013 ; Michael et al. , 2017 ; Wijaya et al. , 2018 ).

In Tanzania, tourism plays a significant role in the country's economy and one among the crucial sectors in generating foreign exchange ( Tanzania Tourism Sector Survey, 2018 ). The sector indirectly offered 1,452,000 jobs in 2017 from 1,389,000 jobs offered in 2016 ( WTTC, 2017 ). Tourism in Tanzania generates about 17.5% of the total country's GDP and 25% of total foreign currency earnings ( Tanzania Tourism Sector Report, 2017 ). Tanzania is famously known for tourist attractions and home to the famous Roof of Africa, the Mount Kilimanjaro. Following these attractions, Tanzania has pulled thousands of international visitors from different parts of the world, thereby making the country be known as one of the competitive tourist destinations in sub-Saharan Africa ( Mkumbo, 2010 ). The WTTC (2017) projects a rising trend by 6.8% in 2027 of 2,267,000 international tourists to Tanzania.

On the other hand, the arrivals of domestic tourists to various tourist attractions in the country are not in the same pace as international travel market. Factors such as limited promotion, awareness, low income, inadequate information, media usage, marketing and service quality challenges such as infrastructure and trained staff have been reported to be among the factors affecting the performance of domestic tourism in Tanzania ( Wade et al. , 2001 ; Mariki et al. , 2011 ; Mkwizu, 2018a ; 2019 ; Mkwizu et al. , 2018 ). Some of the initiatives were done by the government to boost the travel market including setting preferential rates, establishment of the tourism training college for training purposes and introduction of intensive marketing campaigns to create awareness of tourism attractions. Despite all these efforts, there are more international tourists than locals visiting national parks. In 2018–2019, there were 731,351 international tourists compared to 464,933 locals that visited national parks ( Tanzania National Parks, 2019 ). The differences in tourist numbers can be attributed to the fact that Tanzania is the only country in the world that has allocated 25% of her land for wildlife and game-controlled reserves ( Tanzania Tourism Sector Survey, 2018 ). On the other hand, domestic tourists have been seen traveling mainly to visit their friends or relatives and sometimes they travel for leisure ( Mariki et al. , 2011 ). Therefore, there is need for more studies on whether the importance of travel motivations differs among the two groups.

Literature on consumer behavior acknowledges that travel motivation and needs are related ( Goodall, 1988 ), and this means that tourists may decide to take a vacation to satisfy their physiological needs such as food, health and learning. However, the decision of choosing a given destination to visit has been closely linked with sociodemographic characteristics. Woodside and Lysonski (1989) , Um and Crompton (1990) and Moscardo et al. (1996) are among the earliest studies that examined the role of demographic factors on tourists' destination choice with findings showing a link between demographic factors and visitors’ participation in tourism activities. For instance, increasing free time and disposable income have provided people with an opportunity to take part in outdoor activities ( Ibrahim and Cordes, 1993 ). Factors such as age and family structure have an impact on the decision of an individual to participate in leisure activities ( Foot, 2004 ) .

Demand for leisure is also affected by individuals' age and gender ( Mieczkowski, 1990 ; Collin and Tisdell, 2002 ). Collin and Tisdell (2002) found that demographic factors have a role to play in influencing visitors' participation in tourism activities as well as the selection of vacation destination. What is not known is the role that demographic factors such as age, gender and family size play in influencing tourists’ travel motivation in Tanzania. Studies that examined the influence of demographic factors on travel motivation in Tanzania are limited. Existing literature in Tanzania has mainly examined demographic factors in relation to nature-based tourism and media such as Mariki et al. (2011) and Mkwizu (2018a) . Therefore, this study intends to uncover the missing gap by examining demographic factors and travel motivation among local and international leisure tourists in Tanzania.

Furthermore, this study is important in providing insight information on various demographic factors such as age, gender and marital status in influencing tourists’ travel motivation particularly for Tanzania. The information from this study can help tourism stakeholders to segment tourists based on their demographic traits.

Literature review

Travel motivation is viewed as an internal force that arouses and pushes an individual from choosing a particular destination with the intention of getting the desired benefits and satisfaction ( Pyo et al. , 1989 ; Yoon and Uysal, 2005 ). Motivation is viewed as a sociopsychological factor that pushes an individual to a new destination and take part in leisure activities ( Iso-Ahola, 1982 ; Beard and Ragheb, 1983 ). This study defines travel motivation as an internal motive that drives a particular tourist to take a leisure trip in Tanzania.

The complex nature of travel motivation has caused many researchers to come up with different travel motives. However, a good number of them focused on push and pull factors. These dimensions have been used extensively in most of motivation studies ( Kim and Lehto, 2013 ). Due to the importance of these two factors, researchers such as Dann (1977) , Crompton (1979) , Iso-Ahola (1982) and Epperson (1983) developed different motivation dimensions based on the idea of push and pull travel motives.

Mazilu and Mitroi (2010) defined demographic factors as descriptive segmentation technique, whereby sociodemographic factors are directly involved. Examples of sociodemographic factors commonly used by tourism experts ( Ma et al. , 2018 ; Mkwizu, 2018a , 2018b ) include age, gender, family life cycle, education, income and nationality. These variables are believed to be accurate in describing tourism market and predicting travel behavior patterns ( Weaver and Oppermann, 2000 ).

Age is considered to be a crucial demographic factor by tourism stakeholders because leisure demand can effectively be predicted through visitors' age ( Mieczkowski, 1990 ). Age is reported to have positive influence on individual's desire for relaxation and nature exploration ( Ma et al. , 2018 ). According to Spence (2002) , the probability of an individual to participate in wildlife activities varies with age, meaning that the probability of activity participation increases when an individual is young and decreases as that individual grows old.

Gender is one of the major factors influencing travel demand ( Collin and Tisdell, 2002 ). The travel patterns between men and women vary based on their travel motivation. According to Collin and Tisdell (2002) , men travel more than women. Men travel for business-related activities while women do travel mainly for visiting friends and relatives and prefer taking shorter-distance trips compared to men ( Moriarty and Honnery, 2005 ). Females are reported to be highly involved in shopping and are more affected by intrapersonal or structural constraints than men ( Josiam et al. , 2005 ; Andronikidis et al. , 2008 ). Cost, time and family commitments are among limitations for women to be active in travel activities ( Scott, 2005 ; Alexandris and Carrol, 1997 ). As a result, women have been seen participating more in shopping, dining and cultural activities than outdoor activities such as skiing while men are more likely to participate in adventure activities ( Xie et al. , 2008 ).

Marital status is one of the factors that affect vacation decisions ( Kattiyapornpong and Miller, 2008 ). It is important for marketers to have such information because they can use such details to predict one's travel patterns. For instance, Lee and Bhargava (2004) found that married couples spend less time enjoying leisure than singles. This is due to the fact that married couples have social and family obligations that limit their time to undertake holiday vacation or participate in sports activities ( Henderson, 1990 ; Downward and Rasciute, 2010 ). Singles prefer shorter but frequent trips ( Biearnat and Lubowiecki-Vikuk, 2012 ). Singles are assumed to have more free time to engage in various activities compared to those with a family, for example, more time playing musical instruments, singing, dancing, watching TV and traveling for social activities ( Lee and Bhargava, 2004 ). The literature further highlights that Passias et al. (2017) found that never-married mothers have more time to spend on leisure than married mothers. In contrast, Vernon (2010) suggests that married women have more time to engage in leisure than single mothers. For the purpose of this study, age, gender and marital status were included in the analysis. The reason for these factors is due to the fact that there is limited information regarding the roles they play in influencing travel motivation of tourists in the context of Tanzania.

The Beard and Ragheb travel motivation theory

Beard and Ragheb (1983) developed the leisure motivation variables based on the idea from the work of Maslow (1970) . The leisure motivation theory contains four major travel motives, which determine satisfaction that a visitor may gain from taking part in leisure activities. The travel factors identified were: “Intellectual” – these include items such as learning and exploring; “social” – covers the desire for developing friendship and esteem of others; “competence-mastery” – involves issues such as health and fitness and lastly “stimulus avoidance” – which simply describes the desire to relax and escape the routine life. This study employs the Beard and Ragheb theory for the purpose of assessing tourist travel motivation. Beard and Ragheb's theory was chosen because since its establishment in 1983, many researchers ( Mohsin et al. , 2017 ; Albayrak and Caber, 2018 ; Jia et al. , 2018 ) have employed and validated it.

In 1983, Beard and Ragheb also noted that using leisure motivation scale (LMS) to study travel motivation is reliable due to the 32 items measuring Cronbach's alpha ranging from 0.89 to 0.91. Past scholars such as Yusof and Shah (2008) and Chen et al. (2018) have used LMS by Beard and Raghed (1983) to study motivation in tourism. For example, Chen et al. (2018) explored travel motivation for Chinese residents using LMS of 32 items to measure motivation due to its reliability and validity. Chen et al. (2018) found that there were significant differences of gender, marital status and education in leisure behaviors. This study not only used the Beard and Ragheb theory but also applied LMS by Beard and Ragheb (1983) due to its reliability and validity.

Demographic factors and travel motivation

Several researchers have examined travel motivation in relation to demographic factors. Some of these works include a work by Saayman and Saayman (2009) . Researchers examined the relationship between sociodemographic, behavioral and motivational factors for tourists that visited Addo Elephant National Park. The findings of this study revealed that tourists were motivated to travel to the national park because of the need for nature, activities, escape, attractions, photography, family and socialization. It was further pointed out that both sociodemographic and motivational factors influence visitors’ spending decisions.

Differences in travel motivation are noted in past studies such as You et al. (2000) , Kozak (2002) , Jönsson and Deonish (2008) , Kim and Prideaux (2005) , Fan et al. (2015) , Gu et al. (2015) , Albayrak and Caber (2018) and Marques et al. (2018) . The findings of these studies concluded that travel motives differ among travelers from different countries ( You et al. , 2000 ; Kim and Prideaux, 2005 ), among students from different countries ( Marques et al. , 2018 ), across various destinations and nationalities ( Kozak, 2002 ), among tourists participated in white water rafting activity ( Albayrak and Caber, 2018 ), across different forms of tourism ( Gu et al. , 2015 ) as well as those from different countries visiting the same destination ( Jönsson and Deonish, 2008 ).

Yung-Kun et al. (2015) explored factors related to tourists' motivation to visit Taiwan as well as the demographic segmentation of these foreign tourists. The results indicated that push motivation factors such as enlightenment, freedom, shopping, diverse attractions, culture connections, sport facilities and wildlife play a crucial role in the motivation of foreign tourists. These tourists were later clustered into five main motivation groups to include scenery/knowledge seekers, accessibility/expenditure seekers, relaxation/relation seekers, novelty/experience seekers, sport/service seekers based on five demographic traits (gender, age, marital status, nationality and income).

Additionally, Fan et al. (2015) compared motivation and intention of cruise passengers from different demographic profiles in China. They found that travelers from different demographic caliber differ in terms of their travel motivation. For example, singles had higher mean values for travel motivations such as discovering and exploring nature than those who were married. Researchers believed that singles have ample time and freedom to try new and exciting things compared to married travelers. Furthermore, Ma et al. (2018) examined the relationship among tourists' sociodemographic characteristics, motivation and satisfaction as a way of predicting their visitation patterns and travel behaviors to forest nature reserves in Guangdong. The findings from multiple regression analysis revealed that some of the sociodemographic factors had a role to play in influencing travel motivation. For example, age was positively correlated with travel motivation called sense of relaxation and nature exploration. However, education level negatively influenced social travel motivation.

Older people or senior travelers are motivated by the desire for novelty ( Jönsson and Deonish, 2008 ). However, a study by Luo and Deng (2008) found age negatively influenced travel motivation and that younger tourists prefer seeking for novelty compared to older travelers. A study by Mohsin (2008) was done to examine the impact of sociodemographic variables on Mainland Chinese holidaymakers who traveled to New Zealand. The overall findings of one-way ANOVA revealed that there is a significant relationship between travel motivation and demographic factors such age and educational level. The findings are supported by previous studies of Park and Mok (1998) that travel motivation varies with age. Irimias et al. (2016) conducted a study aimed at exploring demographic characteristics in influencing religious tourism behavior among 345 Hungarians who traveled for pilgrimage. It was found that their travel motives differ with age; senior travelers see educational purposes and feelings of national identity related to sacred sites as crucial travel motives while young tourists did not picture that to be of any value to their travel motives. Njagi et al. (2017) conducted a study to provide an in-depth understanding of the factors affecting travel motivation of youth travelers in Kenya. The study revealed that push factors are more crucial in influencing youth travelers in Kenya than the pull travel motives.

The overall findings from the previous studies confirmed that sociodemographic factors have a role to play in influencing tourists’ travel motivation. However, these studies focused more on push and pull factors among youth travelers in Kenya ( Njagi et al. , 2017 ) and among travelers who traveled to Taiwan ( Yung-Kun et al. , 2015 ). Furthermore, the existing studies also looked at the relationships between sociodemographic factors and travel motivation among cruise passengers who traveled to China ( Fan et al. , 2015 ), those who traveled to national parks ( Saayman and Saayman 2009 ) and those who traveled to sacred places for religious purposes ( Irimias et al. , 2016 ). From the reviewed literature, it is evident that sociodemographic factors are crucial in predicting travel patterns of tourists.

However, there are still inconclusive remarks regarding the influence of sociodemographic factors on travel motivation. For example, age was reported to be among the key factors affecting travel motivation ( Irimias et al. , 2016 ; Ma et al. , 2018 ). On the other hand, age was reported to have a negative effect on travel motivation ( Luo and Deng, 2008 ). Other demographic factors such as education were also reported to have a negative effect on travel motivation ( Ma et al. , 2018 ) while marital status was seen to be a significant factor in influencing travel motivation among cruise passengers ( Fan et al. , 2015 ). Furthermore, the existing studies such as Baniya and Paudel (2016) have examined the effects of demographic factors on travel motivation using push and pull items. Other studies in Tanzania ( Wade et al. , 2001 ; Mariki et al. , 2011 ; Mkwizu, 2018a ; 2018b ; 2019 ; Mkwizu et al. , 2018 ) have focused on nature-based tourism, history, market analysis and media. Therefore, this study specifically intended to examine the extent to which demographic factors such as age, gender and marital status influenced travel motivation among local and international leisure tourists guided by the motivation theory and scale items developed by Beard and Ragheb (1983) .

Methodology

Research instrument.

The research questionnaire was divided into two major parts. The first part covered general information about the respondents. Demographic information such as age, gender, marital status and family size. This section composed of six questions. The second part comprised information related to tourists' travel motivation. Respondents were asked to rank the list of travel motivation statements according to their level of importance, indicating whether those statements describe their travel motivation on a Likert scale of 1 ( Not important at all ) to 7 ( Extremely important ). Examples of travel motivation items were to learn things around me, to challenge my abilities and to relax mentally. This study employed Likert scale developed by Kozak (2002) , who highlighted that Likert scale is appropriate to be used in tourist-based studies. This study adopted the shortest version of LMS, which consists of 32 items to measure different travel motives because of its Cronbach's alpha reliability ranging from 0.89 to 0.91 as pointed out by Beard and Ragheb (1983) . The shortest version is appropriate to be used in a research constrained by time and can be applied within less time compared to 48 items from the original scale ( Beard and Ragheb, 1983 ).

Sampling design

A convenience sampling technique was adopted to get the appropriate sample for the study. Ferber (1977) noted that convenience sampling as one form of nonprobability sampling can reduce the impact of nonrandom convenience sampling by making sure that the generated findings are a true representative of the population. Additionally, convenience sampling is one among the appropriate sampling technique s to be used when collecting data from the actual tourist settings ( Madrigal and Kahle, 1994 ).

Data collection

This study used a quantitative approach and survey strategy as the research design. Before collection of data, the survey instrument was pretested by distributing the questionnaires to 50 international tourists found on the beaches of Zanzibar and Pemba islands. Respondents were randomly and conveniently selected to take part in the study. The pretesting exercise was done to assess the survey suitability, readability, eliminate any vague items and determine the response rate. Data was collected from January 2017 to May 2017. A self-administered open-ended questionnaire was employed to 300 local and international tourists who traveled to and within Tanzania for leisure. Tourists at the Julius Nyerere International Airport lounges and those on the beaches of the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba were conveniently approached and asked to take part in the study. The decision to take part in the study was left entirely to tourists. Those who agreed to participate in the study were given a survey questionnaire to fill in.

Data analysis

The collected data was analyzed using the aid of a Social Science Statistical Package (SPSS) version 20. This study selected SPSS, which has descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages in order to avail demographic characteristics of the respondents. In addition, the independent sample t -test was used to test the differences in travel motivation among local and international tourists. ANOVA assisted this study to test the effect of the independent variable (demographic factors) on the dependent variable (travel motivation). Data was cleaned first to check whether there was missing data, outliers and determine the data distribution pattern before analysis. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were employed for purposes of examining internal data consistency. Content, construct, convergent and discriminant validities were tested using CFA.

Respondents' demographic characteristics

Out of 300 surveys from each group, only 250 from each group were recognized as a useable survey, representing a token useable return rate of 83%. The overall descriptive statistics from Table 1 shows that most tourists from each group were between the ages of 18 and 30 (45.6% for internationals and 49.2% for locals), and less than 10% were covered by the senior tourists (4.4% for internationals and 6% for locals). The gender distribution showed that majority of international tourists were males (61.2%) and also for local tourists most were males (61.8%). Over 50% of all tourists had a university education and employed in different fields. On marital status, 53.2% of all the international tourists were married while 49% of all locals were married.

The findings in Table 1 further indicate that 47% of internationals and 51.2% of all locals were singles. On family size distribution, the majority of international tourists have three children and above while 40% of all locals proved to have less than three children. This suggests that the sampled respondents were mostly young educated male tourists who are employed. In addition, the differences between the international and local tourists are noted in marital status.

Furthermore, Table 2 indicates that the largest group of international tourists was from South Africa (10%) followed by Australia (8.8%) and Kenya (8%). There were very few international tourists from countries such as Bangladesh, Brazil, Cameroon and Zurich. These results suggest that the young educated male international tourists were mostly from South Africa.

Reliability results

The alpha coefficient for the total scale was 0.933 and the alpha values for each of the subscales ranged from 0.880 to 0.907, which are above the acceptable threshold (0.70) as suggested by Hair et al. (1998) . The summary of the results is presented in Table 3 .

Validity results

All 32 travel motivation items were subjected to CFA for validity testing as it is presented in Table 4 . Content validity for the observed items was tested for consistency, easy of understanding and appropriateness by members of the academic staff together with tourist experts. Construct validity was examined using composite reliability (CR) and average variance explained (AVE). The overall findings indicate that CR and AVE surpassed the threshold values of 0.70 and 0.50, respectively ( Yap and Khong, 2006 ). Therefore, it can be concluded that the indicators for all constructs met the reliability thresholds and thus qualified for further analyses. Convergent validity indicated that the standardized factor loadings for all the items were above the acceptable range of 0.5 as indicated by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) . In this study, all the CR and AVE were above the recommended value of 0.7 and 0.5 respectively. Discriminant validity was assessed using Fornell and Larcker’s approach of 1981. In order to achieve discriminant validity, AVE of each construct was compared with the shared variance between two constructs. For all the items, the AVE was higher than the shared variance (MSV). The results indicated that all the constructs had acceptable discriminant validity as presented in Table 4 .

Assumptions guiding independent t -test

Data normality.

Before testing for the differences in travel motivation among the tourists, data normality was performed using descriptive statistics. Skewness and kurtosis values were used to determine data normality. Meyers et al. (2006) highlighted that if the values of skewness and kurtosis range within ± 1.00, these are evidence of data normality. Pallant (2011) advised that when one is dealing with large enough sample sizes (e.g. 30+), the violation of normality assumption may not cause any significant problems. For this study, the skewness and kurtosis values were within the cutoff points as was highlighted by Meyers et al. (2006) and Pallant (2011) .

Differences in the importance of travel motivation among international and local leisure tourists

An independent sample t -test was conducted to test whether the importance of travel motivation differs among international and local tourists. This meant comparing travel motivation mean scores for international and local tourists. First of all Levene's test was performed to see whether there was equal variance in the data set. The overall results show that this assumption was met in eight travel motivation items ( p  ≥ 0.005) while for the rest of the travel motivation items, the assumption was violated as it is presented in Table 5 , Table 6 , Table 7 and Table 8 . The results in Table 5 , Table 6 , Table 7 and Table 8 indicate that there was significant difference in scores for travel motivation among international and local leisure tourists. In Table 5 , the findings show that local tourists had higher mean values than international tourists for travel motivation (intellectual motivation) such as to learn about myself ( M  = 5.67, SD = 1.288), to explore new ideas ( M  = 5.73, SD = 1.294), to expand my knowledge ( M  = 6.05, SD = 1.136), to be creative ( M  = 5.68, SD = 1.494), to use my imagination ( M  = 5.22, SD = 1.757) and to satisfy my curiosity ( M  = 5.81, SD = 1.265).

In Table 6 , the findings show that local tourists had higher mean values compared to international tourists for travel motivation (social motivation) such as to build friendship with others ( M  = 5.70, SD = 1.353), to interact with others ( M  = 5.66, SD = 1.428), to develop close friendships ( M  = 5.47, SD = 1.573), to reveal my thoughts ( M  = 5.11, SD = 1.657), to be socially competent and skillful ( M  = 5.66, SD = 1.425), to gain a feeling of belonging ( M  = 5.62, SD = 1.387) and to gain others' respect ( M  = 5.24, SD = 1.827).

Table 7 indicates that local tourists had higher mean values than international tourists for travel motivation (mastery competency motivation) such as to be active ( M  = 5.76, SD = 1.296), to develop physical skills and abilities ( M  = 5.59, SD = 1.375), to keep in shape physically ( M  = 5.39, SD = 1.702), to use my physical abilities ( M  = 5.28) and to develop physical fitness ( M  = 5.21, SD = 1.685). The remaining mastery competency motives had no significant differences.

Table 8 reveals that local tourists had higher mean values for travel motivation (stimulus avoidance motivation) such as to calm down ( M  = 4.89, SD = 1.674), to be alone ( M  = 3.32, SD = 2.064), to relax physically ( M  = 5.39, SD = 1.499), to relax mentally ( M  = 5.63, SD = 1.426), to rest ( M  = 5.53, SD = 1.508), to relieve stress and tension ( M  = 5.48, SD = 1.506) as well as to unstructure my time ( M  = 5.48, SD = 1.506) compared to international tourists. The remaining stimulus avoidance motives had no significant differences.

Differences in travel motivation among tourists by age, gender and family size

Univariate ANOVA tests the interaction between each dependent variable with an independent variable; in short, ANOVA explains changes in the dependent variable, which are caused by the interaction between the independent variables. First, multivariate tests were performed to assess whether there is a significant effect between independent and dependent variables. Second, univariate ANOVA was applied to examine the effect of independent variables on specific dependent variable. Previous scholars have also used ANOVA in examining demographic factors with motivation such as Urosevic et al. (2016) . Using Pillai's trace results in Table 9 indicated that there was significant effect between travel motivation across age F (96.000) = 1.396, p  = 0.008, across gender F (32.000) = 2.005, p  = 0.001, across family size F (32.000) = 2.610, p  = 0.000, across the interaction between age and family F (96.000) = 1.154, p  = 0.023 as well as the interaction between age, gender and family size F (96.000) = 1.514, p  = 0.001.

A separate ANOVA shown in Table 10 was performed to each travel motivation at alpha level of 0.005, and it was found that there were significant difference s among age groups on the need to develop physical skills and abilities F (312.594) = 4.972, p  = 0.002 while for males and females results show the desire to explore new ideas among age groups F (18.906) = 4.451, p  = 0.035 and the desire to discover new things F (16.081) = 3.899, p  = 0.049.

Furthermore, the results indicated that desire to develop physical skills and abilities was significantly different among tourists who have small and large family size F (156.811) = 22.428, p  = 0.000. Other differences were reflected on travel motivation such as the desire to develop physical fitness F (167.625) = 18.772, p  = 0.000 as well as to unstructure my time F (150.424) = 14.955, p  = 0.000.

This study also examined the contribution of the interaction effects of the independent variables on the dependent variable. Table 10 shows that the interaction between age and family size was significant to travel motivation such as to relieve stress and tension F (319.051) = 6.112, p  = 0.000, to develop physical fitness F (320.517) = 5.695, p  = 0.001, ŋ 2  = 0.034, to unstructure my time F (318.159) = 5.386, p  = 0.001, as well as to use my physical abilities F (311.260) = 3.322, p  = 0.020. Additionally, the interaction effect between age, gender and family size was significant to travel motivation such as to satisfy my curiosity F (35.223) = 2.693, p  = 0.046, as well as to develop close friendships with others F (38.729) = 2.634, p  = 0.049.

Discussions of findings

This study reveals that leisure tourists from Australia, Kenya, South Africa, Germany, France, the United Kingdom and United States were motivated to travel to the country with the intention of discovering and learning new things. Furthermore, similar groups of tourists were extremely motivated to visit Tanzania for the sake of relaxing mentally, revealing stress and tensions of their daily routine activities. The results imply that leisure tourists may have more than a single travel motive when visiting a particular destination. These findings support the idea developed by Crompton (1979) that tourists' motivations are multiple and because of that they may have different reasons of taking either domestic or international trips ( Mayo and Jarvis, 1981 ). Researchers also add that some people take trips not only to fulfill their physiological desires (food, climate and health) but also to satisfy their psychological needs.

Furthermore, the study also found that tourists from the United Kingdom and United States had strong views that they were motivated to visit the country for social reasons such as building friendship with others. This can be explained by differences in tourists' culture. It has been identified that there are motivational differences between nationalities ( Kozak, 2002 ). Culture associated with nationality has been extensively acknowledged to be one among the crucial factors differentiating individuals’ attitudes, beliefs and behaviors ( Chen, 2000 ). National culture can be employed to reveal variations in the social behavior of different nationalities, especially in international settings such as tourism experiences ( Kim et al. , 2002 ). The findings of this study confirmed the results reported by Özdemir and Yolal (2016) that Americans and British people prefer to interact and socialize with other tourists when they travel. Additionally, Kozak (2002) pointed out that British tourists enjoy mixing themselves and having fun with other tourists when they travel. It seems that Tanzania is attracting tourists who have psychocentric personality. Individuals of this nature prefer visiting familiar places, having fun and relaxing when visiting new destinations ( Plog, 1974 ).

Surprisingly, this study found that tourists, mainly from Kenya and South Africa, were motivated strongly to travel to the country for the intention of competing and being good at participating in leisure activities. This can be explained by the differences in the level of novelty seeking among tourists. Novelty seeking is one among the key reasons why tourists travel to new destinations ( Dayour and Adongo, 2015 ). The findings of this study show that there is a possibility that tourists from Kenya and South Africa are sensation seekers. Individuals of this nature are risk takers, and this is why they prefer to travel to unfamiliar destinations ( Pizam et al. , 2004 ). Generally, tourists are attracted differently to different tourist attractions, and this is because they have different levels of tolerance for tourism experiences. Some people choose destinations where they can unwind their daily routine life while others look for destinations that can offer adventure life. The choice of a destination can sometimes be linked to tourists' personality traits. The findings of this study imply that Kenyans and South Africans may be allocentrics. Individuals of this caliber are usually seeking for arousal from unexpected and surprising stimuli ( Ryan, 1997 ), they are outgoing, confident, relatively anxiety free, like to feel in control, prefer to visit new destinations, desire to explore the world around them and are moderately risk takers ( Plog, 1973 , 1974 ).

This study found that there was no significant differences in travel motivation among leisure tourists who are single and those who are married. However, a minor difference was revealed on intellectual travel motives to single leisure tourists. It was revealed that single leisure tourists were highly motivated to travel to Tanzania for intellectual purpose. This finding is consistent with a study by Fan et al. (2015) that single people place higher value when it comes to discovering and learning new things compared to married ones. The finding of this study is not surprising since Tanzania is blessed with multiple tourist attractions ranging from game reserves, controlled conservation areas and national parks ( URT, 2014 ). Other attractions include Mount Kilimanjaro, museums, historical sites and buildings. Following these attractions, it is not surprising to see single leisure tourists travel to the country for intellectual reasons.

The findings further indicated that married leisure tourists were more motivated to travel to the country, mainly by their desire to unwind their daily life's hustle. This could be due to the fact that married couples spend less time enjoying leisure than singles. In addition, married couples have social and family obligations that limit their time to undertake holidays ( Henderson, 1990 ) or participate in learning activities as singles. For them, escaping travel motive makes sense since they have been experiencing routine hectic daily life; therefore, it is understandable to see them ranking this motive important. This finding somehow corroborates the views of Leonard and Onyx (2009) that relaxation and escape motivations are two key psychological motives that drive people to take overseas trips. The desire to take a vacation is closely associated with the desire to escape ( Jarvis and Peel, 2010 ). Therefore, tourists often choose to take a vacation to a new destination with the intention of breaking from the daily routine life of home and work ( Kim and Ritchie, 2012 ). The break gives people an opportunity to refresh their minds by taking active role in nonroutine leisure activities ( Ritchie et al. , 2010 ) as well as offering a platform for them to liberate themselves from tension and anxiety.

Furthermore, the study revealed that married leisure tourists traveled to the country for social reasons. This finding is somehow consistent with the study by Passias et al. (2017) that married mothers prefer to spend quality time with their children by engaging themselves in both active and social leisure compared to single mothers. Generally, tourism offers opportunity to bring people of different cultural backgrounds together ( Brown and Lehto, 2005 ), but also offers avenue for them to meet and communicate with others ( Dayour, 2013 ). This study also found that married leisure tourists had higher mean scores for mastery competency travel motives compared to singles. This finding implies that may be Tanzania attracts married leisure tourists who are sensational seekers because tourists differ in the way they consume and obtain novel experience ( Lee and Crompton, 1992 ). Tourists who are high sensational seekers prefer to engage in adventure activities such as scuba diving ( Heyman and Rose, 1980 ) as well as mountain climbing ( Robinson, 1985 ). This group also prefers to travel to new places or meeting new people ( Zuckerman, 1979 ). This finding can be supported by the fact that Tanzania is endowed with more than eight known mountains that attract international tourists from all over the world. Moreover, the country is surrounded with both sandy and clean beaches that offer opportunity for tourists to take part in scuba diving and other water sports activities.

Therefore, the discussion of results for this study has theoretical, practical and policy implications, which are further highlighted in the implications section of this paper.

Conclusions

Based on the findings and discussions, this study can conclude that in examining demographic factors and travel motivation among leisure tourists, there are influential factors. The demographic factors that influence travel motivation (intellectual, social, mastery competency and stimulus avoidance) among local and international leisure tourists in the context of Tanzania are age, gender and family size.

Implications

Theoretical implication.

The overall findings from this study imply that theoretically, the Beard and Ragheb leisure motivation theory and scale can be used to determine tourists’ travel motives in Tanzania. Age, gender and family size significantly influenced intellectual, social, mastery competency and stimulus avoidance motives among local and international leisure tourists.

Practical implication

From a practical implication, the differences in travel motivation among tourists are not homogeneous; therefore, they are not supposed to be treated equally. What is important to tourists from South Africa may not be important to tourists from other countries. Therefore, the government of Tanzania through the Ministry of Tourism and Natural Resources (MNRT) and Tanzania Tourists Board (TTB) should make sure that they promote Tanzania as a destination for people to discover new things, hence attract tourists from South Africa, Kenya, Australia, Germany as well as tourists from France. Furthermore, Tanzania can also be segmented as a friendly and social destination as this will attract tourists from the United States and the United Kingdom. Additionally, destination managers need to make use of the existing attractions such as mountains, beaches, national parks and game reserves to position the country as an adventurous destination. This can help to attract more tourists from Kenya and South Africa.

Policy implication

From a policy perspective, the government, destination marketers, policymakers and tourism stakeholders should make use of the tourists' marital status data because such data can develop better promotion campaigns that match their travel motives. For example, single tourists had higher mean value for intellectual travel motives. This implies that tourist attractions such as museums, historical sites, rock paintings, old town and old buildings can be used to segment this target group. Since singles travel more and spend more time enjoying leisure than married couples, then it would be better for destination managers as well as policymakers to use this opportunity to position the country as a destination that helps tourists to discover new things. On the other hand, married tourists were reported to have higher mean values for most of mastery competency and social and stimulus avoidance travel motives. This implies that the destination managers should advertise tourist activities such as boat cruising, shopping, swimming, as well as beach sports activities for this group. These activities will help them to meet other people, to relax near the sandy beaches as well as to take part in various adventurous games.

Limitations and suggestions for further studies

This study examined travel motivation differences among leisure tourists who were married and those who were single. It did not cover widowers and those who were divorced. Focus was on international tourists who traveled to Northern tourist circuit and islands of Zanzibar and Pemba for leisure. Therefore, the results from the study may not be generalized beyond the selected population. This geographically limited survey may produce different results and conclusions in terms of the magnitude and the strength of relationships among variables. Tourists who visited other circuits (Southern tourist circuit) may have different opinion preferences regarding the importance of travel motives. Replication of similar studies in other tourist circuits should be done to see whether similar findings could be generated.

Additionally, this study employed nonprobability sampling. Therefore, this may affect the external validity. Other studies should try to adopt probability sampling design so as to avoid this problem. Furthermore, the data collection was done between January and May, which is the low season. Thus, the findings of this study are limited to this particular period. Therefore, the tourists who travel in different seasons, for instance, high peak season, might have different opinions regarding the importance of their travel motives. In tourism, seasonality limits the generalization of the study findings and should always be taken into consideration in the interpretation stage. Future research should conduct similar studies in different seasons to overcome this limitation. The obtained results can then be compared to identify similarities and differences between them. Also, the generated findings can be used to validate the findings of this study.

Tourists’ demographic characteristics (age, gender, education, occupation, marital status and family size )

Independent t -test results for intellectual motivation (IL) among tourists

Tests between subjects effects for age, gender and family size on travel motivation

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Low-Carbon Travel Motivation and Constraint: Scales Development and Validation

1 International Business School, Shandong Jiaotong University, Weihai 264209, China; moc.liamg@tyyysp (Y.-Y.D.); moc.361@hjcccnl (J.-H.C.)

An-Jin Shie

2 College of Business Administration, Huaqiao University, Quanzhou 362021, China

3 School of Big Data, Fuzhou University of International Studies and Trade, Fuzhou 350200, China

4 International College, Krirk University, Bangkok 10220, Thailand

Jin-Hua Chu

Yen-chun jim wu.

5 Graduate Institute of Global Business and Strategy, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 106, Taiwan; moc.liamg@nuhcneyuw

6 College of Humanities and Arts, National Taipei University of Education, Taipei 106, Taiwan

Associated Data

Not applicable.

Low-carbon travel has emerged as a topic of interest in tourism and academia. Studies have offered reasons tourists may engage in low-carbon travel; however, these explanations are scattered throughout the literature and have yet to be integrated into low-carbon travel motivation and constraint constructs. This study develops a low-carbon travel motivation scale (LCTMS) and a low-carbon travel constraint scale (LCTCS). It performs reliability and validity testing to measure the low-carbon travel motives and obstacles. Items were collected primarily by literature review, and, then, by surveys of 382 tourists from low-carbon travel destinations and 390 from non-low-carbon travel destinations. Through a rigorous scale development process, this study identifies six dimensions of the LCTMS (environmental protection, experience-seeking, escape or social connection, industry pleas and measures for environmental protection, low-carbon products, and green transportation) and four dimensions of the LCTCS (intrapersonal constraints, interpersonal constraints, structural constraints, and the not a travel option).

1. Introduction

Carbon dioxide emissions resulting from travel and tourism activities account for 5–14% of the world’s total carbon dioxide emissions (World Tourism Organization and United Nations Environment Programme, 2012). They are rising at a rate of 3.2% per year [ 1 ]. Transportation (e.g., aircraft, cars, and boats), accommodation, and tourism activities represent the primary means tourism consumes energy and produces carbon emissions [ 2 , 3 ]. Jarratt and Davies [ 2 ] have asserted that tourists could slow the rise in carbon emissions, by consuming less fuel and reducing their carbon emissions. Thus, promoting low-carbon travel has become a topic of interest to the tourism industry and academic circles over the past ten to twenty years.

The push and pull factors commonly studied in tourism motivation research [ 4 ] serve as a sound theoretical basis for determining why tourists engage in low-carbon travel. Push factors are the socio-psychological forces that drive people to engage in low-carbon travel, such as reducing the harmful effects of tourism on the environment [ 5 ], recognizing the concept of energy-saving and carbon-reducing (ESCR) [ 6 ], and enjoying healthy movement [ 7 ]. Pull factors are the aspects of low-carbon travel activities that attract tourists, such as reducing one’s carbon footprint [ 5 ], providing eco-friendly products and food [ 8 ], offering ESCR tourism facilities and consumer discounts [ 9 ], and using operators that hold environmental certifications [ 6 ]. Although studies have postulated various reasons for visitors potentially participating in low-carbon travel, the explanations are scattered throughout the literature. They have not been integrated into a unified theory of low-carbon travel motivation.

On the other hand, most tourists recognize the benefits of low-carbon activities but are reluctant to plan low-carbon travel activities [ 10 ]. The key to influencing tourists’ decisions is travel constraints that act as barriers and prevent them from traveling in general or traveling to the extent they would like [ 11 ]. Travel constraints can be defined as those that inhibit continued traveling, cause the inability to travel, result in the failure to maintain or increase the frequency of travel, and/or lead to negative impacts on the quality of the travel experience [ 12 , 13 ]. They prevent decision-makers from engaging in travel, even though the motivation may exist.

Very few studies have integrated and developed scales for two constructs in a sole paper [ 14 , 15 ]. However, Wen et al. [ 14 ] suggested that creating valid and reliable multiple-item self-report scales is a significant priority for marketing and consumer research. Božić et al. [ 15 ] mentioned: “Understanding what motivates and hinders people from traveling has important practical implications, as it helps better understand and predict travel decisions and consumption behavior of tourists”.

Therefore, this study identifies and clarifies low-carbon travel motivations and low-carbon travel constraints, from a theoretical perspective of the two concepts, and adds to the related research. These low-carbon travel motivation and low-carbon travel constraint constructs can help researchers and tourism operators understand the reasons and limitations of tourists engaged in low-carbon travel, while also providing appropriate market segmentation criteria in tourism. Understanding the motives and constraints of low-carbon travel will help the tourism industry provide the services that tourists want and need, and assist the operators in planning their corresponding marketing strategies.

Based on the background above research and topics, the objectives of this study are as follows: (1) To explore the motives and obstacles to engaging in low-carbon travel, review the literature to identify their significant implications, and then clearly define constructs for low-carbon travel motivation and low-carbon travel constraint. (2) To develop a low-carbon travel motivation scale (LCTMS) and a low-carbon travel constraint scale (LCTCS) and, then, perform letter and validity testing to measure the low-carbon travel motives and obstacles.

2. Literature Review

2.1. low-carbon travel motivation.

Travel motivation is a broad and complex concept. McIntosh and Goeldner [ 16 ] divided primary travel motivations into four types: physical motivation, cultural motivation, interpersonal motivation, and prestige motivation. Pearce et al. [ 17 ] listed ten primary tourist motives. Experience the environment, rest and relax in a comfortable site, pursue special interests or skills, be healthier, and possess a strengthened physique, are push or internal motivation. Interact with locals, understand the local culture, improve family life, gain self-protection, gain security, be respected, win social status, and reward selves are pulled or external motivation.

As visitors in different travel situations may hold different motivations, researchers have used many aspects to discuss tourism motivation and develop different travel motivation scales. For example, rural tourists are generally motivated by relaxation, social interaction, education, family gatherings, novelty, and excitement [ 18 ]. Cruise tourists are usually motivated by self-esteem and social identity, exploration and relaxation, learning and discovery, novelty and stimulation, and socialization and cohesion [ 14 ]. Slow travelers are generally motivated by relaxation, introspection, escape, novel pursuit, participation, and discovery [ 19 ].

Although these researchers have mainly used factor analysis or cluster analysis to determine the various travel motivations of their subjects, since the nature of travel is a series of travel activities to satisfy people’s inner social-psychology needs or the external cultural seeking of a destination, tourist motivation has tended to revolve around the concepts of “pull” and “push” [ 20 ]. Most discussions in tourism have applied the theory of push-and-pull motivation when explaining why people travel [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. Therefore, the push and pull factors of Crompton [ 20 ] provide the main theoretical framework in this study.

Researchers have proposed numerous factors that motivate tourists to engage in low-carbon travel. However, these explanations are scattered throughout the literature, have not been integrated into a low-carbon travel motivation construct, and are inconsistent with general tourism motivations. To address these discrepancies, this study applies the push and pull theory [ 4 ] to explore the factors that motivate tourists to participate in low-carbon travel.

2.1.1. Push Factors

Push motivation is a psychosocial need that motivates individuals to travel, and that motivation drives or guides individual travel choices [ 25 ]. Common push factors include knowledge, relaxation, family harmony, escape, self-discovery, prestige, and social interaction. According to the target framework theory of Lindenberg and Steg [ 26 ], we can explore motivation related to environmental protection behavior from three aspects: morality, emotion, and access.

Moral motivation refers to tourists participating in environmental protection behavior based on their social awareness of green products and service consumption as well as a positive self-image. Tourists choose low-carbon destinations because of environmental appeal or green policies promoted by the tourism industry [ 6 ]. When Horng et al. [ 6 ] applied self-completion theory, they discovered that consumers’ inner moral identity and symbolic moral identity drove them to choose low-carbon options. Several of the subjects interviewed by Dickinson et al. [ 27 ] said they decided to travel by train out of concern for the environment. Horng et al. [ 8 ] discovered that tourists make eco-friendly decisions due to their sense of responsibility for the environment. Thus, morality appears to be a factor that motivates tourists to engage in low-carbon travel.

Emotional motivation mainly refers to the joy [ 28 ] and happiness that tourists receive from altruistic behavior [ 29 ]. Nawijn and Peeters [ 30 ] asserted that green consumers are motivated by altruism and the resulting joy. Due to expected benefits for the environment and the next generation, visitors consume low-carbon products and services from green restaurants and low-carbon players [ 31 ]. Kuo and Dai [ 5 ] have determined that, once they have recognized that travel hurts the environment, tourists begin to select low-carbon travel options to sustain the environment and recreational resources of the destination, lessening the environmental problems caused by individuals and society. Applying protection motivation theory, Horng et al. [ 8 ] determined the ESCR behavior of tourists motivated by threat assessments, such as environmental risk severity and vulnerability, and adaptation assessments, such as response effectiveness and self-efficacy. The study showed that tourists engage in ESCR tourism because they believe ESCR behavior helps protect the environment. Thus, the desire to preserve the environment of a destination and preserve its recreational resources for the next generation appears to be one reason tourists choose low-carbon travel.

Access motivation refers to tourists’ desire to improve physical fitness and acquire new knowledge. Regarding physical fitness, Garrido-Cumbrera et al. [ 7 ] used focus groups to determine that tourists who choose to walk or cycle are driven by a strong motivation to exercise. Travelers interviewed by Kuo and Dai [ 5 ] said that to promote their health, they would shift from general tourism activities to low-carbon travel activities such as cycling, walking, and eating more vegetables and less meat. As for learning, tourists are motivated to acquire new ESCR knowledge. Horng et al. [ 8 ] modified the tourist learning motivation scales of Ballantyne et al. [ 32 ] and proposed that tourists are motivated to participate in ESCR festivals. Motives include: acquiring new ESCR practices, obtaining more ESCR information, expanding more interesting ESCR topics, inspiring the willingness to implement ESCR, and discovering new ESCR methods. Therefore, personal fitness and the desire to acquire new knowledge motivate tourists to participate in low-carbon travel.

2.1.2. Pull Factors

Push motivations are usually intrinsic, whereas pull motivations are external and are related to destination choice, destination traits, attractions, and attributes. Pull factors attract people to destinations such as sunny beaches or snowy mountains and influence the perceptions and expectations of travelers. Common pull factors are natural and historical environments, cost, convenience, safety, accessibility, novelty, and education [ 20 ].

ESCR characterizes low-carbon travel. Generally, tourists engage in low-carbon travel activities to directly reduce carbon emissions and their carbon footprint while on holiday [ 5 , 10 ]. Moreover, visitors are attracted by low-carbon travel-related food, transportation, and accommodations. Researchers in the hotel [ 6 ] and restaurant industries [ 31 ] have confirmed that visitors generally favor companies with environmental certifications. Eco-friendly policies and actions, such as not changing sheets and towels daily, garbage sorting, and resource recycling, can also attract tourists. Tourists may also seek alternative methods to protect the environment. Thus, tourists are willing to accept ESCR technologies to engage in ESCR activities.

Some tourists reduce their travel by plane once they understand the importance of reducing their carbon footprint [ 27 ]. Garrido-Cumbrera et al. [ 7 ] discovered that tourists often walk or cycle to enjoy the outdoors. Exposure to eco-friendly products, facilities, and food also affects travelers’ ESCR behavior during a trip. For example, hotels might offer ESCR rooms and facilities [ 6 ]. Low-carbon tourists seek simple packaged products and locally produced fresh foods [ 33 ]. Finally, discounts to incentivize eco-friendly consumption also motivate travelers to change their behaviors [ 9 , 33 ]. Each of these factors can help achieve ESCR.

Research by Kuo and Dai [ 5 ] revealed that past low-carbon travel experiences substantially influence future decisions to participate in low-carbon travel. For example, some travelers choose to engage in low-carbon activities such as walking or cycling because past experiences were relaxing and enjoyable [ 7 ]. Horng et al. [ 6 ] showed that consumers’ past dining experiences could stimulate green consumption behavior in line with ESCR. Chen [ 9 ] pointed out that travelers who have previously stayed in green hotels make green accommodation decisions based on their past accommodation experiences. Thus, the characteristics that attract tourists to low-carbon travel include the ESCR characteristics and measures of the trip, residence, food, shopping, and tourists’ past travel experiences.

2.1.3. Summary

Empirical research has focused on identifying tourism motivation factors and measurement scales. A variety of different motivational factors have been used to explain the behavior of visitors in different travel situations. In the past, researchers proposed a variety of motivations to explain why tourists engage in low-carbon travel. However, no research has integrated this into the low-carbon travel motivation construct. Understanding tourists’ low-carbon travel motivations will help us identify the factors that drive tourists to participate in low-carbon travel. Industry operators will be better able to plan low-carbon travel activities to maximize tourist satisfaction, inspire and change attitudes, and reduce environmental stress [ 8 ]. Thus, both tourists and operators can more effectively develop low-carbon travel to achieve sustainability.

2.2. Low-Carbon Travel Constraint

Travel constraint is a multifaceted concept that refers to the factors that prevent or reduce the frequency, proportion, or fun of individuals engaging in specific activities [ 15 , 34 ]. Khan et al. [ 13 ] argued that travel constraint is a crucial factor that prevents people from starting or continuing to travel. Wen et al. [ 14 ] defined travel constraints as factors that inhibit travel continuity, lead to the inability to travel, fail to maintain or increase travel frequency, and negatively influence travel quality. Karl et al. [ 12 ] expanded the definition to obstacles that hinder the continuing use of leisure services, the inability to participate in new activities, the inability to maintain or increase the frequency of participation, and the negative effect on leisure experience quality.

There are a few classic conceptual models of barriers to leisure participation. The leisure constraints model developed by Iso-Ahola and Mannell [ 35 ] placed the individual in the social environment, but did not explicitly indicate the process by which barriers may operate beyond the individual. This paradigm of leisure constraints also failed to anchor these constraints within the context of the preference–participation relationship [ 34 ]. To understand the barriers or reasons that prevent people from traveling, we should, comprehensively, consider the tourists’ perceived constraints or switching barriers. The most common and comprehensive framework in leisure research is the three-dimensional constraint construct proposed by Crawford and Godbey [ 36 ] and Crawford et al. [ 37 ]. This model assumes that constraints could be dynamic and intervening factors that affect an individual’s participation and preference [ 38 ].

Tan [ 39 ] explained that research on leisure barriers and travel constraints has often been based on a model of intrapersonal constraint, interpersonal constraint, and structural constraint. Crawford et al. [ 37 ] asserted that an individual’s intrapersonal constraints are related to their mental state, including personality traits, attitudes, beliefs, and emotions. Interpersonal constraints are determined by interactions with friends, family, colleagues, neighbors, and others. Structural constraints prevent people from acting, including economic resources, available time, and accessibility. Therefore, the low-carbon travel constraint base is also in line with Crawford et al.’s [ 37 ] model. Given the complex nature of travel constraints, researchers often use the three-dimensional leisure constraint framework to explore the obstacles of tourists in different travel situations. These include essential natural tourism [ 40 ] and cruise tourism [ 14 ]. Adopting factor analysis, many travel scholars have confirmed this three-dimensional leisure constraint framework to be effective and reliable [ 41 ].

In the low-carbon travel context, researchers e.g., [ 5 , 42 ] have investigated the constraints of low-carbon travel. However, the factors that hinder tourists from participating in low-carbon travel are scattered throughout the literature and have yet to be integrated into a low-carbon travel constraint construct. According to McKercher et al. [ 10 ], less than 4% of Hong Kong residents surveyed have adopted low-carbon travel behavior. Juvan and Dolnicar [ 43 ] pointed out that even the best intentions of tourists might not be enough to leverage care for the environment into eco-friendly actions. Even though low-carbon travel reduces carbon emissions from travel activities and lessens the adverse effects on the environment, tourists are not always willing to engage in low-carbon travel. To examine the specific reasons that people do not participate in low-carbon travel, this study adopts the three-dimensional travel constraint framework proposed by Crawford and Godbey [ 36 ] and Crawford et al. [ 37 ]. In addition, we add the concept of the “not a travel option” to explore low-carbon travel constraints.

2.2.1. Intrapersonal Constraints

Poor health and low-carbon travel awareness are the most common intrapersonal constraints. The subjects of Kuo and Dai [ 5 ] believed that poor personal health, lack of an environmental sustainability concept, and lack of low-carbon travel information prevent them from engaging in low-carbon travel. Dickinson et al. [ 44 ] interviewed slow travelers on low-carbon travel, and most respondents had an insufficient understanding of climate change and, even, doubted the scientific basis. According to Horng et al. [ 8 ], international tourists to Taiwan generally do not believe that tourism and related activities are seriously harmful to the environment. Besides, travelers may doubt that individual low-carbon travel can influence climate change [ 45 ]. Subjects of Dällenbach [ 42 ] argued that an individual’s actions to reduce carbon emissions are inconsequential in a global context.

Along with poor health and lack of awareness, another cause of intrapersonal low-carbon travel constraints is tourists’ unwillingness to sacrifice general tourism’s advantages and personal travel benefits. Respondents of Dällenbach [ 42 ] believed that holidays are essential and are benefits that should not be restricted. Dickinson et al. [ 27 ] pointed out that tourists would continue to use air travel. Most travelers find it difficult to escape from a high-carbon lifestyle while traveling [ 45 ], choosing to act responsibly at home or in other areas [ 44 ].

2.2.2. Interpersonal Constraints

Tourism research has determined a lack of friends as the primary interpersonal constraint [ 40 , 41 ]. However, only a few studies have mentioned the interpersonal constraint of lack of friends in the low-carbon travel context. For example, Dickinson et al. [ 27 ] pointed out that airline tourists are influenced by family and friends and do not choose low-carbon transportation. The primary interpersonal constraint in low-carbon travel is that tourists believe responsibility lies with others.

According to Dällenbach [ 42 ], most tourists believe that governments, businesses, and other countries are the main contributors to climate change. Governments’ continued expansion of airports has raised doubts regarding the government’s determination that people will travel less. The tourism industry has not responded to climate change within its boundaries but has, instead, passed it on to consumers. Therefore, Becken [ 46 ] pointed out that tourists believe that reducing carbon emissions is a public, rather than a personal, responsibility. This view has led tourists to be more inclined to spend energy on travel. Therefore, besides a lack of friends, tourists’ interpersonal low-carbon travel constraints also include the belief that other parties bear a greater ESCR responsibility.

2.2.3. Structural Constraints

The characteristics of low-carbon travel, including short-distance travel, less travel, and more extended stays at destinations, are different from general travel planning and are the factors tourists consider most [ 2 , 27 ]. Since low-carbon travel seeks to reduce the high-carbon behavior of available tourism (such as air travel), many tourists believe that engaging in low-carbon travel is difficult, uncomfortable, and inconvenient [ 3 , 5 ].

The structural constraints of low-carbon travel are that its planning and arrangement are different from general tourism. Although all survey participants are aware of climate change, they lack explicit action means. Moreover, many people firmly believe that they are not responsible for carbon emissions related to tourism travel. To a large extent, travelers are limited by tourism products. For example, if it is challenging to take a bicycle on a train, but it is easy to take a bike on low-cost airlines, low-carbon bicycle travelers may engage in high-carbon aircraft travel [ 44 ].

2.2.4. Not a Travel Option

Many studies have interviewed travelers who generally do not consider alternative transportation on reducing airplane tours [ 27 , 42 , 44 ]. Dällenbach [ 42 ] pointed out that tourists believe that the price and time of traveling on trains are not as valuable as travel by air. Traveling by plane is the preferred and customary tourist choice, and low-cost airlines enable people to travel more overseas. Dickinson et al. [ 27 ] pointed out that aviation tourists generally have no other transportation options, and, therefore, low-carbon travel may not be a tourist’s first option.

2.2.5. Summary

Travel constraints have been studied extensively in the field of tourism. Although many tourists refuse to embrace low-carbon travel, studies have not integrated the various constraints into a construct of low-carbon travel constraint. Therefore, this study applies the three-dimensional constraint architecture, proposed by Crawford and Godbey [ 36 ], to clarify the low-carbon travel constraint. Researchers believe that tourists’ low-carbon travel constraints explain why tourists with strong low-carbon travel awareness do not engage in low-carbon travel. Helping them overcome those constraints can encourage them to adopt low-carbon travel. In addition, given that travel constraints have been used as variables in the tourism market, the development of LCTCS allows researchers to precisely measure the obstacles preventing tourists from engaging in low-carbon travel and segmenting the low-carbon travel market [ 47 ].

3. Methodology

This study aims to explore the motivations and constraints of tourists engaged in low-carbon travel and to develop LCTMS and LCTCS. This study mainly uses a literature review to collect tourists’ potential low-carbon travel motivations (based on push-and-pull factors) and low-carbon travel constraints (intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural). It adopts interviews to supplement more possible items. The researcher and the transcribed responses conducted in these interviews would be coded, and a grounded theoretical context would be used to guide the coding process [ 48 ]. Moreover, this study follows the broad-scale development process and constructs a reliable and valid measurement tool. This study builds two scales following the scale development processes of Churchill [ 49 ], Ager [ 48 ], and Bhatt et al. [ 50 ]. Please see Figure 1 .

Scale development process.

3.1. Generating Initial Items

3.1.1. principles and form.

Schmid [ 51 ] suggested using a multifaceted approach to produce a more comprehensive list of measurement items. Therefore, this study uses three techniques. First, a series of measurement items are generated from a complete literature review. This study first reviews the literature and, then, lists tourists’ low-carbon travel motivations and constraints. The literature review focuses on research papers and books on low-carbon travel. Churchill [ 49 ] and Bhatt et al. [ 50 ] stated that researchers should strictly specify which definitions they retain and exclude. Therefore, the literature reviewed must list why tourists engage in low-carbon travel and the key factors that prevent tourists from starting or continuing low-carbon travel. The articles reviewed must express or imply conceptual descriptions of definitions of low-carbon travel motivations and constraints. For the empirical research literature, the researcher’s choice of reference material must be based on the nature of the research sample, the field in which the data were collected, and the activities undertaken by tourists. Therefore, this study reviews data types consistent with the low-carbon travel motivation and constraint concepts. This study adopted the translation and back-translation process [ 52 ]. We reviewed original items from the English literature, translated them into Chinese, and ensured the responders understood the meanings of each item, such as ESCR.

3.1.2. In-Depth Interviews and Content Analysis

To collect a variety of low-carbon travel motivations and low-carbon travel constraints as well as to improve data quality and generalization, this study adds some items through interviews. From 1 February to 31 March 2015, 14 low-carbon tourists and 11 non-low-carbon tourists participated in in-depth interviews by snowball sampling. The open-ended interview questions are shown as Supplementary File S1 . The respondents’ characteristics satisfy the following conditions: (1) males and females are similar; (2) ages are 21 to 30 years old, 31 to 40 years old, and more than 40 years old; (3) travel experience covers less than 5 years, 6 to 10 years and more than 10 years; (4) the low-carbon travel experience includes those that have participated in group trips of low-carbon tourism, have planned low-carbon travel journey, and have practiced ESCR in tourism.

Next, three judges who have rich low-carbon travel experience and two judges who have research experience in low-carbon travel are invited to assist in classifying and naming the results of the literature review and in-depth interviews. The content analysis produced 113 valid low-carbon travel motivation units and 115 valid low-carbon travel constraint units. These units were grouped into 33 low-carbon travel motivation-related and 30 low-carbon travel constraint-related subcategories. The inter-judge reliability is 0.87 (98/113) and 0.91 (30/33) for low-carbon travel motivation and 0.88 (101/115) and 0.90 (27/30) for low-carbon travel constraint. These low-carbon travel motivation and constraint subcategories were then transformed into preliminary items for the initial item pool.

The researchers also carefully review the conceptual narrative of the above items, so that the item content conforms to the appropriate words of low-carbon travel motivation and low-carbon travel constraint, to achieve reasonable surface validity. The results indicate that low-carbon tourists and non-low-carbon tourists have different motivations and constraint experiences. For clarity, 33 low-carbon travel motivations are divided into two categories: push motivations and pull motivations. The 30 low-carbon travel constraints are divided into four categories: intrapersonal constraints, interpersonal constraints, structural constraints, and the not a travel option.

3.1.3. Expert Validation

After pooling the initial items, the researcher submits the preliminary research to an expert panel of four experienced low-carbon tourists and five scholars specializing in tourism and low-carbon travel for assessment. Chang et al. [ 53 ] stated that items not sufficiently consistent with their construct should be modified or excluded from the scale. Thus, the research is submitted to nine low-carbon travel experts to assess the applicability of these measurement items and assist in screening the clarity and surface validity of the questionnaire questions, which helped make the items more accurate [ 54 ]. This study then adds, merges, and deletes questions, and modifies the semantics to form an initial questionnaire. Finally, 26 low-carbon travel motivations and 23 low-carbon travel constraints are retained.

The formal questionnaire is based on previous methods of measuring travel motivations and constraints. This study uses the intensity concept (e.g., Wen et al. [ 14 ]) to measure tourists’ low-carbon motivations and constraints. The questionnaire uses a 5-point Likert Scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The formal questionnaire also gathers respondents’ gender, age, education level, marital status, occupation, monthly income, place of residence, and past low-carbon travel experience.

3.1.4. Item Analysis

To increase the reliability and validity of the measurement tools, this study uses SPSS 23.0 software to individually evaluate each item, confirm that the items measure the same concept and form an intrinsically consistent scale, and exclude items that do not meet this standard [ 55 ]. The corrected item–total correlation is used to analyze the items in both scales of this study [ 56 ]. The analysis reveals high discrimination and homogeneity in low-carbon travel motivation and low-carbon travel constraint items.

3.2. Pre-Test and Item Refinement

To ensure the ability of the questionnaire to measure low-carbon travel motivations and low-carbon travel constraints, this study conducts a pre-test to confirm the clarity and comprehensiveness of the questionnaire content. The basis of filtering items is item analysis and a critical test. Item analysis can eliminate ambiguous or misleading items in the scale development process. In this way, researchers can consider whether items on a scale are necessary or not [ 57 ]. This study, preliminarily, surveys college students in universities’ tourism and leisure departments in Weihai City, Shandong Province, China. In addition to being convenient, this sampling method has two benefits. First, these students may or may not engage in low-carbon travel. Second, as Schwall et al. [ 58 ] argued, student samples are relatively homogeneous, so the results are less likely to obscure the scales testing. The pre-test data collection occurred between 26 May and 31 May 2017. Based on the pre-test results, two motivation items are deleted since their t-test results in the critical test are not significant, including “I am engaged in low-carbon travel because of I can save on travel expenses” and “I am engaged in low-carbon travel because of the prices of the products are reasonable”. Subsequently, a formal questionnaire features 24 low-carbon travel motivations and 23 low-carbon travel constraints.

4.1. First Formal Survey

4.1.1. data collection.

The first formal data collection covers low-carbon destination visitors. Low-carbon destination refers to destinations with low-carbon footprints and low-carbon travel concepts, such as travel planning and merchant services [ 59 ]. Qingdao is an important coastal tourist city in eastern Shandong, China, with rich and diverse tourism resources and an excellent ecological environment. During the rapid development of urbanization, industrialization, and tourism, Qingdao has formulated several environmental protection policies such as “Opinions on Implementing the Scientific Outlook on Development and Strengthening Environmental Protection”, and carried out many environmental protection projects such as the “Clear Water and Blue Sky Project” to promote the construction of ecological civilization in many aspects, such as industrial structure upgrading, energy-saving, and emission reduction, as well as promotion of low-carbon tourism concepts. In recent years, Qingdao City has successively won the title of China’s Travelable, Livable, and Industrial City. Local businesses must comply with various rules: (1) the lodging industry must not provide single-use toiletries; (2) the catering industry must not provide disposable tableware and, instead, must encourage visitors to bring their tableware; and (3) travel agencies must remind and encourage visitors to comply with the low-carbon island lifestyle.

Independent tourists generally plan and arrange their travel, holding a wealth of knowledge regarding the purchase and use of travel products. Independent tourists desire to satisfy their inner social and psychological needs through tourism. So, compared to group tourists, independent tourists are much more attracted by tourism attributes. Independent tourists also consider the constraints of planning travel routes more than group travelers. Therefore, independent tourists require more time and energy to decide whether to start or continue low-carbon travel. This study selects Laoshan Scenic Area and Zhanqiao Scenic Area in Qingdao as the survey sites for low-carbon destinations. The survey population is independent tourists visiting these scenic areas. This study adopts random sampling to ensure the sample is representative.

Survey interviewers were two doctoral students, three master’s students, and two college students with considerable investigative skills training. The researchers used the convenience sampling method from 1 June to 14 June 2018. To ensure the validity of the sample, interviewers reviewed each item in the collected questionnaires to ensure that respondents answered all questions. This study collected 497 questionnaires, of which 382 were valid, for an effective sample recovery rate of 76.9%. Roscoe [ 60 ] suggested that the number of samples is 10 times the number of variables. In this study, the ratio of samples to low-carbon travel motivation items is 15.9:1, while the ratio of samples to low-carbon travel constraint items is 16.6:1.

4.1.2. Descriptive Statistics Analysis

Data from the first survey are used to purify the LCTMS and LCTCS to determine the scale’s factor structure. Data from the second survey are used to revalidate the stability of the scale factor structure and perform a reliability and validity analysis. The sample and travel characteristics of the low-carbon tourist sites collected in the first survey are detailed in Table 1 . Most respondents are female (53.1%), and most are aged 21–30 years (43.5%). The highest educational level of most respondents is college or university (66.8%); most respondents are single (65.4%); the most common careers are student, family management, and retiree (60.2%); and the most common monthly income is more than RMB 5000 (79.6%). Most respondents have experienced low-carbon travel once in the past year (69.4%), and the most common travel time is two days (74.1%).

The first sample’s profile and travel characteristics—from low-carbon destinations ( n = 382).

Normality assumptions were examined using skewness-kurtosis tests. Under univariate normality, we consider variables with a skew index higher than 3 and a kurtosis index higher than 10 to violate the usual distribution assumption (Kline, 2005). The study items were assessed by determining the range of skewness (−1.43 to 0.26) and kurtosis (−0.79 to 2.32). Thus, the first formal survey data did not appear to violate the assumptions of normality.

4.1.3. Exploratory Factor Analysis

This study uses exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on low-carbon travel sites to determine the measurement scale constructs. The principal component analysis method obtains the co-interpreted variation between all measurement items and excludes items with cross-load quantity, by the orthogonal rotation axis of the maximum variation number. Items with factor loading values above 0.5 are retained. The EFA results of the LCTMS are presented in Table 2 . Based on these results, this study determines six factors: environmental protection, environmental protection appeals and measures, escape and social connection, low-carbon products, green transportation, and experience seeking. These six factors explain 69.56% of the variance. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) is 0.94, indicating that the low-carbon travel motivation sample data have a sufficient internal correlation between the conducting EFA.

EFA results of LCTMS—sample from low-carbon destination ( n = 382).

The EFA results for the LCTCS are presented in Table 3 . The study affirms four factors: structural constraints, the not a travel option, intrapersonal constraints, and interpersonal constraints. These four factors explain 60.12% of the variance. The KMO value of 0.92 indicates that the sampling data of low-carbon travel constraints have a sufficient internal correlation between the conducting EFA.

EFA results of LCTCS—sample from low-carbon destination ( n = 382).

4.1.4. Reliability and Validity Analysis

Reliability is generally reflected in the consistency or stability of the measurement tool, and it refers to the trustworthiness of the measurements. Table 2 and Table 3 demonstrate that Cronbach’s α values for all factors of LCTMS and LCTCS are more significant than 0.6 [ 61 , 62 , 63 ]. The overall reliability of the LCTMS is 0.94, and that of the LCTCS is 0.92. These results indicate that the internal consistency of the LCTMS and the LCTCS is, statistically, reasonably high.

Criterion-related validity is used to test the validity of LCTMS and LCTCS. Carvache-Franco et al. [ 23 ], and Božić et al. [ 15 ] have demonstrated that their motivations and constraints affect tourists’ travel intentions. Their low-carbon travel intentions can test tourists’ low-carbon travel motivations and constraints. Therefore, this study refers to the low-carbon travel intention scale Horng et al. [ 54 ] proposed. After the experts’ discussion, three survey statements were retained: “I would like to participate in low-carbon travel”, “I will encourage others to engage in low-carbon travel”, and “I will engage in low-carbon travel myself”.

The Pearson Correlation between intention and motivation and intention and constraint is used to evaluate criterion-related validity. The results demonstrate that environmental protection (r = 0.62), experience seeking (r = 0.60), escape and social connection (r = 0.52), environmental protection claims and measures (r = 0.43), low-carbon products (r = 0.47), and green transportation (r = 0.49) are significant positively associated with low-carbon travel intention. At the same time, structural constraints (r = −0.10), intrapersonal constraints (r = −0.19), the not a travel option (r = −0.42), and interpersonal constraints (r = −0.13) are significantly negatively associated with low-carbon travel intention. All these correlation coefficients are significant at p < 0.01. Therefore, the criterion-related validity of LCTMS and LCTCS is supported.

4.1.5. Common Method Variance

The present study evaluated the presence of common method variance (CMV) by the Harman single-factor test [ 64 ]. The six factors of low-carbon travel motivation and the four factors of low-carbon travel constraint were separately constrained to a single factor, using factor analysis in SPSS. As per the unrotated factor solution, the percentage variance explained by the single factor of low-carbon travel motivation was 44.5%, and the low-carbon travel constraint was 39.8%, lower than 50% [ 64 ]. These results confirmed the absence of CMV in the first formal survey of this study.

4.2. Second Formal Survey

4.2.1. data collection.

Through the first data collection and analysis process, this study establishes 24 questions for the LCTMS and 23 questions for the LCTCS. Next, this study evaluates the reliability and validity of the scales in another different sample, as recommended by Churchill (1979). The second phase investigates independent tourists in non-low-carbon destinations. Since all the counties and cities in Shandong are actively developing sightseeing, most tourists engage in mass tourism. This study selects the metropolitan areas of Weihai City in Shandong as representative samples of non-low-carbon destinations. Data were collected from 15 June to 28 June 2018. Four hundred and eighty-five questionnaires were collected, and 390 questionnaires were valid, for an effective sample recovery rate of 82.3%. The ratio of samples to low-carbon travel motivation items is 16.6:1, and the ratio of samples to low-carbon travel constraint is 17.3:1. The items were assessed by determining the range of skewness (−1.17 to 0.32) and kurtosis (−0.59 to 1.02). Thus, the second formal survey data appear in line with the assumptions of normality.

4.2.2. Descriptive Statistics Analysis

The sample profile and travel characteristics of non-low-carbon travel sites are presented in Table 4 . Most respondents are female (61.5%) and are aged <20 years (42.8%), followed by those aged 21–30 years (37.7%). The highest educational level of most respondents is college or university (82.3%); most respondents are single (80.5%); the most common careers are student, family management, and retiree (71.0%); and the most common monthly income is more than NTD 40,000 (91.0%). Most respondents reported not experiencing low-carbon travel in the past year (50.3%), followed by one time (23.6%), and the most common travel time is two days (74.1%). Once again, the Harman single-factor test was adopted to analyze CMV here. Furthermore, the percentage variance explained by the single factor of low-carbon travel motivation was 47.6%, and the low-carbon travel constraint was 44.4%, which is below 50% [ 64 ]. These results also confirmed the absence of CMV in the second formal survey of this study.

The second sample’s profile and travel characteristics—from non-low-carbon destinations ( n = 390).

4.2.3. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is used to confirm the factors’ structure of the LCTMS and LCTCS, obtained from the previous EFA results. LISREL 8.80 [ 65 ] analyzes goodness-of-fit and measurement model estimations. The squared multiple correlation (SMC) value is used to measure the individual reliability of each item. The t-value of each variable is used to determine whether the variable reaches a significant level. The detailed results are presented in Table 5 and Table 6 .

CFA results of LCTMS—sample from non-low-carbon destinations ( n = 390).

Note: SFL is standard factor loading, SMC is squared multiple correlations, CR is composite reliability, and AVE is average variation extracted.

CFA results of LCTCS—sample from non-low-carbon destinations ( n = 390).

In Table 5 , the SMC values of the 24 measurement items of the LCTMS are between 0.54 and 0.81, indicating that each measurement item has strong explanatory power. In addition, the t-values of each item are more significant than 1.96, meaning that each item is at a considerable level. The composite reliability (CR) values of each construct of the LCTMS are more potent than 0.6, as prescribed by Pan et al. [ 65 ]. This study exhibits a high degree of internal consistency in line with this standard. In Table 6 , the SMC values of the 23 measurement items of the LCTCS are between 0.50 and 0.85, while the t-values of each item are more significant than 1.96. The CR values of each construct are under the standard CR > 0.6, also exhibiting a high degree of internal consistency.

Next, this study explores whether the scale’s measurement mode’s absolute and relative fit indicators meet the criteria. In the overall model of the LCTMS, the χ 2 /df is 780.31/237, GFI is 0.86, AGFI is 0.82, NFI is 0.98, NNFI is 0.98, CFI is 0.98, IFI is 0.98, SRMR is 0.05, and RMSEA is 0.08. These evaluation indicators are all acceptable, indicating that the sampling data exhibit high goodness of fit with the structure of the LCTMS, which suggests a proper scale [ 66 ]. From Table 6 , the CFA of the LCTCS demonstrates that χ 2 /df is 661.38/224, GFI is 0.88, AGFI is 0.86, NFI is 0.93, NNFI is 0.93, CFI is 0.94, IFI is 0.94, SRMR is 0.08, and RMSEA is 0.08. These evaluation indicators are at acceptable levels, indicating that the sampling data exhibit high goodness-of-fit with the structure of the LCTCS, which suggests a sufficient scale.

4.2.4. Convergence Validity and Discriminatory Validity

Convergence validity refers to the observation items used to measure the same construct, and these should have a high correlation with each other. The standard factor loading of all items in the scale is 0.50, and the estimated parameters (t value) are more significant than 1.96 ( p < 0.05), reaching the statistically significant level. These suggest that the potential variables of this study have ideal convergence validity [ 67 ]. Matthes and Ball [ 63 ] indicated that the average variation extraction (AVE) for each construct must be greater than 0.5, indicating that the internal consistency of the scale structure is acceptable. The correlation coefficient between pairwise constructs was compared to the square root of the mean variation extract for each factor to test discriminative validity. Table 7 demonstrates that the scale’s measurement models have high discriminatory validity.

Discriminatory validity of Low-Carbon Motivation and Constraint Scale.

Note: the bold figure is the square root of the average variation extract for each factor.

4.2.5. Competing Models

This study also examined two competing models for the LCTMS and the LCTCS separately. One is a first-order model, in which there is LCTMS with six main factors (environment protection, experience-seeking, escape/social connection, environmental protection appeals and measures, low-carbon products, and green transportation) and LCTCS with four main factors (structural constraints, intrapersonal constraints, the not a travel option, and interpersonal constraints). The other one is a second-order model. LCTMS showed push and pull as the primary factors as well as the six sub-factors, and LCTCS only showed constraint as the main factor as well as the four sub-factors. The fit indices for all four models are separately presented in Table 8 .

Comparison of competitive models.

The CFI, SRMR, and RMSEA indicated adequate data to model fit, for all models based on the general guidelines. To compare the first-order and second-order models, the researcher examined the NCP, AIC, and ECVI. Although the first-order models were marginally better, the second-order models were both reasonably close and significantly easier to use in research and practice. Pan et al. [ 65 ] pointed out that when the models are all adapted, the higher-order model has the principle of simplification. Therefore, this study chooses the second-order models as the best hierarchical model for LCTMS ( Figure 2 ) and LCTCS ( Figure 3 ).

The second-order model of LCTMS.

The second-order model of LCTCS.

4.3. Discussion

This study surveys independent tourists from low-carbon travel and non-low-carbon travel sites and evaluates the reliability and validity of two scales. The results exhibit high goodness of fit, supporting the second-order two-factor structure of low-carbon travel motivation with six potential constructs and the second-order single-factor form of low-carbon travel constraint with four possible constructs. The CR of each construct is at least 0.7, indicating that the scale reliability is acceptable. This study ensures that each scale has reasonable validity through construction, convergence, differential, and criterion-related validity. The results indicate a need to explore the essential constructs and contents of low-carbon travel motivation and low-carbon travel constraint for independent tourists and tour operators, to confirm why tourists do or do not engage in low-carbon travel.

Scholars have been increasingly interested in determining the motivations and constraints behind tourists’ decisions to engage in low-carbon travel [ 5 , 8 ]. This study’s results reflect the motivations, constraints, and ESCR behaviors of tourists that have been proposed in the other low-carbon travel literature. Kuo and Dai [ 5 ] and Horng et al. [ 8 ], for example, have discussed environmental protection motivations, while Dickinson et al. [ 44 ] and Dällenbach [ 42 ] discussed intrapersonal constraints, interpersonal constraints, and structural constraints.

The relevant literature has stressed that low-carbon travel contributes to sustainable tourism development [ 5 , 8 ]—Horng et al. [ 54 ] drew a low-carbon travel literacy scale from the perspectives of tourism practitioners. Hsiao [ 68 ] contributed a low-carbon tourism evaluation index system for travel agencies. Lee and Jan [ 52 ] developed a low-carbon tourism experience scale to guide tourists and managers to reduce carbon emissions. Tsaur and Dai [ 69 ] provided a low-carbon travel scale for independent tourists to engage in a low-carbon travel. However, Horng et al. [ 54 ] only adopted potential literacy from some internal motivations. Hsiao [ 68 ] focused on establishing the industrial-level low-carbon tourism index. Lee and Jan [ 52 ] and Tsaur and Dai [ 69 ] all encouraged studies to focus on examining the causal structural models of the low-carbon tourism experience and low-carbon travel behavior.

Since few studies have comprehensively examined the low-carbon travel motivation and low-carbon travel constraint in the tourism industry, this study is based on a push and pull structure of tourism motives as well as a three-dimensional framework for constraints and, then, emphasizes the diversified orientation of low-carbon travel motivation and low-carbon travel constraint. This study suggested various critical factors indicators gathered from in-depth interviews and questionnaires. Furthermore, there are still many studies that continued to explore the relationships between travel motivation, constraint, and experience. Compared to past studies, this study provided the necessary concept and measurements of tourists’ low-carbon travel motivation and constraint in the low-carbon tourism context; the LCTMS and LCTCS developed in this article highlight the independent tourists’ perspectives.

5. Conclusions

Based on the scale development process recommended by Churchill [ 49 ], this study integrates qualitative and quantitative methods to develop two measurement scales. Tourists’ diverse views of questionnaires were collected from the literature review, interviews, content analysis, and expert discussion. According to the scale development guidelines provided by Churchill [ 49 ], Ager [ 48 ], and Bhatt et al. [ 50 ], this study constructs a motivation scale and a constraint scale suitable for explaining tourists’ reasons for engaging in low-carbon travel. After a rigorous scale development process, this study establishes essential constructs for low-carbon travel motivations and constraints.

Low-carbon travel is a broad concept, and independent tourists’ decisions on it vary according to their different motivations and constraints. The researchers believe that an in-depth understanding of motivations and constraints can help tourism operators encourage independent tourists to overcome those constraints and engage in low-carbon travel. Thus, the research results reveal the primary low-carbon travel motivations and low-carbon travel constraints of independent tourists, regardless of a tourist’s travel purpose or mode.

The practical contributions of this study are (1) helping the tourism industry identify why independent tourists may or may not engage in low-carbon travel, (2) enabling the industry to provide the services that tourists want and need, and (3) assisting the industry in planning its corresponding marketing strategy. Theoretically, this study integrates the different motivations and constraints of low-carbon travel and lays out a reasonable theoretical foundation. The construction of the LCTMS and LCTCS adds to previous knowledge as well as provides a practical assessment and guidance tool for tourists and scholars. The two scales are appropriate tools for low-carbon travel market segmentation.

5.1. Theoretical Implications

This study confirms the stability of the LCTMS and LCTCS and the structure, reliability, and validity of the low-carbon travel behavior scale. Therefore, the LCTMS and LCTCS can, indeed, provide low-carbon travel operators and authorities with why tourists choose to engage or not engage in low-carbon travel and, then, motivate tourists to overcome constraints and practice low-carbon travel. Concerning the spirit of theoretical construction, the significance of using this research scale is to understand the psychological and behavioral context of independent tourists engaged in low-carbon travel.

From theoretical development, researchers have focused on the theory of planned behavior [ 5 ] and the theory of protection motivation [ 8 ] to explore the antecedents of tourists’ low-carbon travel intentions. However, now the LCTMS and LCTCS can be used to measure why tourists make low-carbon travel decisions. When motivations and constraints conflict, constraint negotiation will enable tourists to adjust. Suppose researchers further explore the negotiation constraints in tourists’ low-carbon travel decision-making and link low-carbon travel intentions and behaviors. In that case, they may additionally construct a causal model to interpret low-carbon tourists’ behavior. This research scale can be used to explore the effects of low-carbon motivation and constraint on constraint negotiation and, further, explore the influence of constraints on travel behavior in different tourism situations.

5.2. Management Implications

Tourists and tourism authorities can further apply the content of these two scales, integrate recreational resources, policy dissemination, media, and, even, knowledge acquisition, and strengthen independent tourists’ low-carbon travel motivations and reduce their constraints. Thus, this study has several implications for management.

5.2.1. Low-Carbon Travel Motivation

Low-carbon travel differs from other types of tourism, in that it emphasizes ESCR and lessens the adverse effects on the environment. The competent authorities of tourism destinations should actively educate independent tourists about environmental protection. As independent tourists increasingly favor ESCR, reduce their resources waste, and lessen the harmful effects of tourism on the environment, their motivation to engage in low-carbon travel will increase. Second, the competent authorities of tourism destinations should improve low-carbon travel services and the environment to provide independent tourists with more opportunities to explore the culture of tourism destinations. This approach makes it possible for independent tourists to understand the difference between low-carbon travel and general tourism.

Third, the competent authorities of tourism destinations should emphasize the escape and social interaction aspects of low-carbon travel. So, independent tourists can also escape from their daily life or work, enjoy physical and mental relaxation, spend time with relatives and friends, and, even, meet people with the same hobbies or interests. The tourism industry’s environmental protection appeals and measures are a fourth powerful motivation. The tourism industry should apply different environmental protection labels according to their current conditions or ability to improve, propose specific environmental protection slogans and demands, and provide ESCR facilities through multiple avenues. The above measures will help independent tourists better understand where to choose low-carbon operators.

Lin [ 68 ] discovered a significant canonical correlation between purchasing motivations and product attributes, by investigating the food-souvenir-purchasing behaviors of Chinese tourists. The competent authorities of tourism destinations should encourage residents to produce local products and food as well as cooperate with government agencies to promote local products and food to independent tourists. Finally, tourism destinations ought to provide convenient public transportation, such as trains, buses, and high-speed rail, as well as well-planned bicycle lanes and hardware facilities for landscape trails, encouraging independent tourists to choose a low-carbon and healthy way to move between attractions.

5.2.2. Low-Carbon Travel Constraint

Nowadays, in contrast to group tourists, independent tourists make their arrangements and consider the constraints of many ESCR measures in low-carbon travel. The tourism industry and authorities should provide independent tourists a convenient ESCR and comfortable tourism situation, along with much low-carbon travel information to improve tourist views of low-carbon travel. For example, Horng et al. [ 3 ] believed that transportation options at tourism destinations should be more convenient, to encourage tourists to travel by mass transit, boosting passenger load capacity and reducing per visitor carbon footprint. Besides, tourism operators and low-carbon travel authorities must work together closely to provide more low-carbon travel-related products, reducing low-carbon travel prices and increasing the attractiveness of low-carbon travel options [ 11 ].

Independent tourists wanting to engage in low-carbon travel face more intrapersonal constraints than group-package tourists. Since time and budget planning are more casual for independent tourists than group-package tourists, the tourism industry and competent authorities of low-carbon travel destinations should provide sufficient knowledge to tourists and plan marketing programs to attract independent tourists by giving incentives such as time, finance, and a low-carbon journey.

Third, the competent authorities of tourism destinations should strive to promote low-carbon travel and encourage independent tourists to adopt low-carbon travel to develop a thriving low-carbon travel market. The tourism industry and the authorities of low-carbon travel could encourage independent tourists to travel with family and friends, by offering discounts and actively communicating that low-carbon travel can strengthen emotional connections with family and friends.

5.3. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research

First, the two scales constructed in this study are designed from the perspective of independent tourists. They may not suit group tourists. Since tourists primarily seek convenience and comfort, it is impossible to comprehensively consider the practice of low-carbon energy conservation, to explore the motivations and constraints of low-carbon travel from the perspective of group tourists. Further studies may adopt hieratic analysis to explore individual tourists’ low-carbon travel motivations and constraints in group tours.

Second, further research can be conducted on low-carbon travel and non-low-carbon travel sites in other regions or countries, covering tourists with and without low-carbon travel experiences to test the external validity of these scales. Third, researchers can use the two scales to further examine the relationships between tourists’ low-carbon travel motivations and low-carbon travel constraints and other variables (such as attitudes, subjective norms, constraint negotiation, and perceived behavioral control) to strengthen the theoretical basis of relevant research, such as the theories of planned behavior [ 5 ] and protection motivation [ 8 ].

Finally, further research can use cluster analysis and spectral concepts to study high-carbon tourism, moderate and mild low-carbon travel, and non-low-carbon travel experiences, comparing the low-carbon travel motivations and low-carbon travel constraints of tourists’ groups with the different levels of the low-carbon travel experience.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the administrative and technical support from Shandong Jiaotong University. Thanks are also due to the tourists participating in surveys and anonymous reviewers.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ijerph19095123/s1 , File S1. The open-ended interview questions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.-Y.D. and A.-J.S.; methodology, Y.-Y.D. and A.-J.S.; software, Y.-Y.D. and J.-H.C.; validation, Y.-Y.D., A.-J.S. and J.-H.C.; formal analysis, Y.-Y.D. and A.-J.S.; investigation, Y.-Y.D. and A.-J.S.; resources, Y.-Y.D. and A.-J.S.; data curation, Y.-Y.D.; writing–original draft preparation, Y.-Y.D. and A.-J.S.; writing–review and editing, Y.-Y.D. and A.-J.S.; visualization, Y.-Y.D. and A.-J.S.; supervision, J.-H.C. and Y.-C.J.W.; project administration, J.-H.C. and Y.-C.J.W.; funding acquisition, Y.-Y.D., A.-J.S. and J.-H.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research was funded by the National Social Science Fund of China, grant number 20BGL219; Humanities and Social Sciences Research Fund of Shandong Jiaotong University, grant number R201709; Doctoral Scientific Research Starting Up Fund of Shandong Jiaotong University; the Starting Research Fund for Higher-Level Talents from Huaqiao University, grant number 21SKBS007; and the Social Science Fund of Jiangsu Province, grant number 19SHB003. The APC was funded by the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Fund of Shandong Jiaotong University.

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