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What Travel Looked Like Through the Decades

Getting from point A to point B has not always been as easy as online booking, Global Entry , and Uber. It was a surprisingly recent event when the average American traded in the old horse-and-carriage look for a car, plane, or even private jet .

What was it like to travel at the turn of the century? If you were heading out for a trans-Atlantic trip at the very beginning of the 20th century, there was one option: boat. Travelers planning a cross-country trip had something akin to options: carriage, car (for those who could afford one), rail, or electric trolley lines — especially as people moved from rural areas to cities.

At the beginning of the 1900s, leisure travel in general was something experienced exclusively by the wealthy and elite population. In the early-to-mid-20th century, trains were steadily a popular way to get around, as were cars. The debut regional airlines welcomed their first passengers in the 1920s, but the airline business didn't see its boom until several decades later. During the '50s, a huge portion of the American population purchased a set of wheels, giving them the opportunity to hit the open road and live the American dream.

Come 1960, airports had expanded globally to provide both international and domestic flights to passengers. Air travel became a luxury industry, and a transcontinental trip soon became nothing but a short journey.

So, what's next? The leisure travel industry has quite a legacy to fulfill — fancy a trip up to Mars , anyone? Here, we've outlined how travel (and specifically, transportation) has evolved over every decade of the 20th and 21st centuries.

The 1900s was all about that horse-and-carriage travel life. Horse-drawn carriages were the most popular mode of transport, as it was before cars came onto the scene. In fact, roadways were not plentiful in the 1900s, so most travelers would follow the waterways (primarily rivers) to reach their destinations. The 1900s is the last decade before the canals, roads, and railway plans really took hold in the U.S., and as such, it represents a much slower and antiquated form of travel than the traditions we associate with the rest of the 20th century.

Cross-continental travel became more prevalent in the 1910s as ocean liners surged in popularity. In the '10s, sailing via steam ship was the only way to get to Europe. The most famous ocean liner of this decade, of course, was the Titanic. The largest ship in service at the time of its 1912 sailing, the Titanic departed Southampton, England on April 10 (for its maiden voyage) and was due to arrive in New York City on April 17. At 11:40 p.m. on the evening of April 14, it collided with an iceberg and sank beneath the North Atlantic three hours later. Still, when the Titanic was constructed, it was the largest human-made moving object on the planet and the pinnacle of '10s travel.

The roaring '20s really opened our eyes up to the romance and excitement of travel. Railroads in the U.S. were expanded in World War II, and travelers were encouraged to hop on the train to visit out-of-state resorts. It was also a decade of prosperity and economic growth, and the first time middle-class families could afford one of the most crucial travel luxuries: a car. In Europe, luxury trains were having a '20s moment coming off the design glamour of La Belle Epoque, even though high-end train travel dates back to the mid-1800s when George Pullman introduced the concept of private train cars.

Finally, ocean liners bounced back after the challenges of 1912 with such popularity that the Suez Canal had to be expanded. Most notably, travelers would cruise to destinations like Jamaica and the Bahamas.

Cue "Jet Airliner" because we've made it to the '30s, which is when planes showed up on the mainstream travel scene. While the airplane was invented in 1903 by the Wright brothers, and commercial air travel was possible in the '20s, flying was quite a cramped, turbulent experience, and reserved only for the richest members of society. Flying in the 1930s (while still only for elite, business travelers) was slightly more comfortable. Flight cabins got bigger — and seats were plush, sometimes resembling living room furniture.

In 1935, the invention of the Douglas DC-3 changed the game — it was a commercial airliner that was larger, more comfortable, and faster than anything travelers had seen previously. Use of the Douglas DC-3 was picked up by Delta, TWA, American, and United. The '30s was also the first decade that saw trans-Atlantic flights. Pan American Airways led the charge on flying passengers across the Atlantic, beginning commercial flights across the pond in 1939.

1940s & 1950s

Road trip heyday was in full swing in the '40s, as cars got better and better. From convertibles to well-made family station wagons, cars were getting bigger, higher-tech, and more luxurious. Increased comfort in the car allowed for longer road trips, so it was only fitting that the 1950s brought a major expansion in U.S. highway opportunities.

The 1950s brought the Interstate system, introduced by President Eisenhower. Prior to the origination of the "I" routes, road trippers could take only the Lincoln Highway across the country (it ran all the way from NYC to San Francisco). But the Lincoln Highway wasn't exactly a smooth ride — parts of it were unpaved — and that's one of the reasons the Interstate system came to be. President Eisenhower felt great pressure from his constituents to improve the roadways, and he obliged in the '50s, paving the way for smoother road trips and commutes.

The '60s is the Concorde plane era. Enthusiasm for supersonic flight surged in the '60s when France and Britain banded together and announced that they would attempt to make the first supersonic aircraft, which they called Concorde. The Concorde was iconic because of what it represented, forging a path into the future of aviation with supersonic capabilities. France and Britain began building a supersonic jetliner in 1962, it was presented to the public in 1967, and it took its maiden voyage in 1969. However, because of noise complaints from the public, enthusiasm for the Concorde was quickly curbed. Only 20 were made, and only 14 were used for commercial airline purposes on Air France and British Airways. While they were retired in 2003, there is still fervent interest in supersonic jets nearly 20 years later.

Amtrak incorporated in 1971 and much of this decade was spent solidifying its brand and its place within American travel. Amtrak initially serviced 43 states (and Washington D.C.) with 21 routes. In the early '70s, Amtrak established railway stations and expanded to Canada. The Amtrak was meant to dissuade car usage, especially when commuting. But it wasn't until 1975, when Amtrak introduced a fleet of Pullman-Standard Company Superliner cars, that it was regarded as a long-distance travel option. The 235 new cars — which cost $313 million — featured overnight cabins, and dining and lounge cars.

The '80s are when long-distance travel via flight unequivocally became the norm. While the '60s and '70s saw the friendly skies become mainstream, to a certain extent, there was still a portion of the population that saw it as a risk or a luxury to be a high-flyer. Jetsetting became commonplace later than you might think, but by the '80s, it was the long-haul go-to mode of transportation.

1990s & 2000s

Plans for getting hybrid vehicles on the road began to take shape in the '90s. The Toyota Prius (a gas-electric hybrid) was introduced to the streets of Japan in 1997 and took hold outside Japan in 2001. Toyota had sold 1 million Priuses around the world by 2007. The hybrid trend that we saw from '97 to '07 paved the way for the success of Teslas, chargeable BMWs, and the electric car adoption we've now seen around the world. It's been impactful not only for the road trippers but for the average American commuter.

If we're still cueing songs up here, let's go ahead and throw on "Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous," because the 2010s are when air travel became positively over-the-top. Qatar Airways rolled out their lavish Qsuites in 2017. Business class-only airlines like La Compagnie (founded in 2013) showed up on the scene. The '10s taught the luxury traveler that private jets weren't the only way to fly in exceptional style.

Of course, we can't really say what the 2020 transportation fixation will be — but the stage has certainly been set for this to be the decade of commercial space travel. With Elon Musk building an elaborate SpaceX rocket ship and making big plans to venture to Mars, and of course, the world's first space hotel set to open in 2027 , it certainly seems like commercialized space travel is where we're headed next.

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The History of Tourism: Structures on the Path to Modernity

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Various academic disciplines have repeatedly sought to re-evaluate the significance of tourism. Globalised tourism's socio-economic place within the framework of the leisure and holidaying opportunities on offer today has attracted particular attention. Such accounts often leave out the fact that this also has a history. The present article aims to overcome this shortcoming: it seeks to present an overview of the important structures, processes, types and trends of tourism against the background of historical developments. It deals with early forms of travel in the classical world and the Middle Ages, as well as the precursors of modern tourism, Bildungsreisen ("educational journeys") and the middle-class culture of travel. It then examines the boom in mass tourism in the 19th century and the unique expansion of tourism in the 1960s characterised by new forms of holidaying and experience shaped by globalisation.

Tourism as a Globalised System

Tourism is often seen as a global phenomenon with an almost incomprehensibly massive infrastructure. Its importance is evident from the fact that its influence thoroughly penetrates society, politics, culture and, above all, the economy. Indeed, this is the branch of the global economy with the most vigorous growth: the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) estimates that in 2007 it encompassed 904 million tourists who spent 855 billion US dollars. 1 They thereby supported a global system with roughly 100 million employees in the modern leisure and experience industry. There exists a complex, interwoven world-wide structure dedicated to satisfying the specific touristic needs of mobile individuals, groups and masses. Since its inception, tourism has polarised: it reveals numerous views ranging from the total approval of its potential for enriching self-realisation combined with recreation to critical rejection due to the belief that it causes harm through the systematic dumbing down of entertainment and avoidable environmental destruction.

Beginning in the early 1920s, an early theory of Fremdenverkehr – a now obsolete term for tourism – emerged in the German-speaking world that dealt mainly with business and economic problems; since the 1960s, it has been replaced by the ever-expanding field of tourism studies. This gives many disciplines the space to approach the subject of tourism, or at least aspects of it, from their own particular academic perspective. Today, tourism studies means the multi-disciplinary bundle of academic approaches in the sense of an undisguised "transdiscipline", 2 which can find different applications. However, tourism studies does not exist as an integrated field of study. Instead, there are countless empirical accounts, case studies, approaches, theories and perspectives in individual disciplines, including economy, geography, psychology, architecture, ecology, sociology, political science and medicine.

At first, the fields of business studies and economics dominated a study of tourism that was grounded in an institutional approach; 3 general accounts, 4 analyses from the cultural sciences and historical surveys 5 came conspicuously late. Admittedly, cultural and social history, as well as historical anthropology, 6 have been opening up to the questions surrounding tourism for some time. 7 However, these are perceived differently to those studies undertaken by economists and social scientists. At the same time, it is impossible to ignore the historical prerequisites and development of travelling habits and holidaying styles if one wants to understand the nature of tourism today. This is true not only of concepts and ideas associated with the topic, but also the specific insights which the disciplines employed aim to provide. Conducting historical research on tourism within the context of the discipline of history is not synonymous with the task of writing a history of tourism (or parts of it). 8

This article takes the second approach. It is a conscious attempt to give an overview that picks up on the classic processes, stages, types and trends of modern tourism in order to place them in the context of their historical development. In general, there is a consensus that one should understand tourism as a phenomenon of modernity and place its appearance in the context of middle-class society from about the middle of the eighteenth century. However, this does not exclude historically older, "related" forms of travel, which should at least be remembered here. Not every journey is a touristic journey; mobility has many modalities. It is sensible to separate travelling as a means to an end (for example, expulsion, migration, war, religion, trade) and travelling as an end in itself in the encoded sense of tourism (education, relaxation, leisure, free time, sociability, entertainment).

Early Forms of Travel and Types of Journey

Recreational and educational travel already existed in the classical world and, even earlier, in Egypt under the pharaohs. In the latter, there is evidence of journeys emanating from a luxury lifestyle and the search for amusement, experience and relaxation. The privileged groups of the population cultivated the first journeys for pleasure. Their writings tell us that they visited famous monuments and relics of ancient Egyptian culture, including, for example, the step pyramid of Sakkara , the Sphinx and the great pyramids of Gizeh – buildings that had been constructed a good thousand years earlier. 9 The Greeks had similar traditions. They travelled to Delphi in order to question the Oracle, participated in the Pythian Games (musical and sporting competitions) or the early Olympic Games. Herodot (485–424 B.C.) , the well-travelled writer with an interest in both history and ethnology who visited Egypt , North Africa , the Black Sea , Mesopotamia and Italy , pioneered a new type of research trip. 10

Classical Rome also gave impetus to travelling and particular forms of holiday. Holiday travel became increasingly important due to the development of infrastructure. Around 300 A.D., there existed a road network with 90,000 kilometres of major thoroughfares and 200,000 kilometres of smaller rural roads. These facilitated not only the transport of soldiers and goods, but also private travel. Above all, wealthy travellers seeking edification and pleasure benefited from this system. In the first century after Christ, there was a veritable touristic economy which organised travel for individuals and groups, provided information and dealt with both accommodation and meals. 11 The well-off Romans sought relaxation in the seaside resorts in the South or passed time on the beaches of Egypt and Greece . The classical world did not only have the "bathing holiday", but also developed an early form of "summer health retreat" in swanky thermal baths and luxury locations visited by rich urban citizens during the hot months. Something that had its origins primarily in healthcare soon mutated into holidays for pleasure and entertainment, which could also include gambling and prostitution. The decline of the Roman Empire caused the degeneration of many roads. Travel became more difficult, more dangerous and more complicated.

The mobility of mediaeval corporate society was shaped by its own forms and understandings of travel tailored to diverse groups, including merchants, students, soldiers, pilgrims, journeymen, beggars and robbers. From the twelfth century, the movement of errant scholars became increasingly important. Journeys to famous educational institutions in France ( Paris , Montpellier ), England ( Oxford ) and Italy ( Bologna ) became both a custom and a component of education. The desire to experience the world emerged as an individual, unique guiding principle. Travelling tuned from a means into an end: now, one travelled in order to learn on the road and developed in doing so a love of travel and life that not infrequently crossed over into licentiousness and the abandonment of mores. With regard to the motivation for travel, one can see here an important process with long-term repercussions – travelling and wandering has, since then, been seen as a means of confronting oneself and achieving self-realisation."Das subjektive Reiseerlebnis wird zu einem Kennzeichen der beginnenden Neuzeit: auf Reisen erlebt das eigene Ich seine Befreiung." 12

The journeyman years of trainee craftsmen can be seen as a counterpart to those errant students "studying" at the "university of life". The travels of journeymen were part of the highly traditional world of artisan and guild structures, for which documentation exists from the middle of the 14th century. Beginning in the 16th century, the guilds prescribed the common European practice of journeying as an obligatory element of training, often lasting three to four years. This survived as an institution with a rich and highly regimented set of codes well into the 18th century. The fundamental idea was that one could mature and learn while travelling, experience the world and improve one's craft in order to grow through a test and return as an accomplished man. The fact that not all journeymen were successful and often suffered terrible fates is evident from reports of an "epidemic of journeymen" that circulated in the 17th and 18th centuries. 13

Precursors of Modern Tourism

From England, the tours went on to, for example, France and Italy. Trips to the classical sites of Italy represented the highpoint of the journey, but large cities in other countries were visited: London , Paris, Amsterdam , Madrid , Munich , Vienna and Prague had considerable drawing power. During the tour, the young aristocrats visited royal courts and aristocratic estates for, after all, one goal was to teach them the appropriate etiquette and social graces through practice. 16 The nobles attended princely audiences, learned how to behave themselves at court and took part in parties and festivals:

Ausbildung in Tanz, Reiten und Fechten, Erwerb und Verbessern von Sprachkenntnissen, Besuch von Universitätskursen, Anknüpfen gesellschaftlicher und wirtschaftlicher Verbindungen, Praxis im standesgemäßen Auftreten und in gewandten Umgangsformen – all das stand auf dem Programm der Adeligen während der Reise. 17

Sie [die Adeligen] bereisen Italien im Bewusstsein der eigenen politischen Stärke und organisatorischen Effektivität, des wirtschaftlichen Erfolges und des technischen Fortschritts. Zugleich aber in Bewunderung der kulturellen und künstlerischen Leistungen Italiens und dessen sublimen und kultivierten gesellschaftlichen Umgangsformen. Die Reise nach Italien wird zum Blick zurück in eine als niveauvoller bewertete Kultur, an deren Grundwerten sie sich noch orientieren. Die neue Welt zollt der alten Welt ihren Respekt – ein Grundmuster des Tourismus, das auch in den Reisen von Römern nach Griechenland oder in der Europa-Reise von Amerikanern wiederzufinden ist. 18

The "early", "pre-" or "developmental" phase of modern tourism is generally considered to have lasted from the 18th century to the first third of the 19th century. 19 During this stage, touristic travel remained confined to a minority of wealthy nobles and educated professionals. For them, travelling was a demonstrative expression of their social class which communicated power, status, money and leisure. Two characteristics stand out: on the one hand, the search for pleasure increasingly supplanted the educational aspects; on the other, wealthy members of the middle classes sought to imitate the travelling behaviour of the nobles and the upper middle classes. Consequently, aristocrats who wanted to avoid mixing with the parvenu bourgeoisie sought more exclusive destinations and pastimes. 20 This is evident in the fact that they found renewed enthusiasm for bathing holidays and took up residence in luxurious spa towns with newly built casinos. These included Baden-Baden , Karlsbad , Vichy and Cheltenham , where life centred around social occasions, receptions, balls, horse races, adventures and gambling. Here, too, the nobles were "swamped" by entrepreneurs and factory owners. In response, they created a socially appropriate form of holidaying in costal resorts. The British aristocracy enjoyed Brighton and the Côte d'Azur , or wintered in Malta , Madeira or Egypt.

The Foundations of Modern Tourism

In the context of the history of tourism, the term "introductory phase" refers to all the developments, structures and innovations of modern tourism between the first third of the 19th century and around 1950. 21 This had its own "starting phase", which lasted until 1915. 22 This period witnessed the beginning of a comprehensive process characterised by a prototypical upsurge in a middle-class culture of travel and its formation, popularisation and diversification. It prepared the way for a mass tourism recognisable to modern concepts of spending leisure time. The development progressed episodically and built upon a number of changing social conditions and factors. The most important undoubtedly include not only the advance of industrialisation, demographic changes, urbanisation and the revolution in transportation, but also the improvement of social and labour rights, the rise in real income and the resulting changes in consumer demand. 23

The Boom in Mass Tourism in the 19th Century

Organised group holidays offering an all-inclusive price that reduced the travellers' costs were an innovation of the 1840s. Thomas Cook (1808-1892) , a brilliant entrepreneur from England, is seen as their inventor 35 and thus the pioneer of commercialised mass tourism. His first all-inclusive holiday in 1841 took 571 people from Leicester to Loughborough and supplied both meals and brass music. From 1855, Cook offered guided holidays abroad, for example in 1863 to Switzerland. These catered to a mixed clientele, from heads of state and princes to average representatives of the middle, lower middle and working classes. Cook, inspired by clear socio-political motives, wanted to use Sunday excursions to tempt workers out of the misery and alcoholism of the cities into the green of the countryside. He had more success with inexpensive all-inclusive holidays, often to foreign destinations, for the middle class. His introduction of vouchers for hotels and tourist brochures was highly innovative. 36

Cook's pioneering role in the emergence of mass tourism is widely recognised. He influenced the travel agencies later opened in Germany, above all those associated with the names of Rominger ( Stuttgart , 1842), Schenker & Co. (München, 1889) and the Stangen Brothers ( Breslau , 1863). Carl Stangen (1833–1911) organised holidays through Europe, then from 1873 to Palestine and Egypt, before extending them to the whole world in 1878. Over this period, the travel agency was able to establish itself as a specialised institution. It channelled ever greater demands for relaxation and variety among broadening social strata: from the 1860s, travelling became a type of "popular movement" that spread throughout society. The German writer Theodor Fontane (1819–1898) remarked in 1877: "Zu den Eigentümlichkeiten unserer Zeit gehört das Massenreisen. Sonst reisten bevorzugte Individuen, jetzt reist jeder und jede ... Alle Welt reist ... Der moderne Mensch, angestrengter, wie er wird, bedarf auch größerer Erholung". 37

Holidaying Practices in the Interwar Period

The dominant motif of travelling and holidaying after 1900 was recuperation. However, only those involved in intellectual work had an established right to relaxation; this right was extended from nobles, the middle-class professions and high-ranking bureaucrats to entrepreneurs, merchants, mid-ranking bureaucrats, white-collar workers and teachers. 44 Without doubt, this was connected to the regulation of holidays as part of legal agreements on pay. Most European countries lacked strict holiday rights before 1900: with the exception of a few pioneering cases, paid time off work for more than a day only became established in law after the First World War. In Germany, the Reichsbeamtengesetz of 1873, which outlined the employment conditions of state employees ( Beamte ), was the beginning. At first, it was only relevant to state employees, and holidays for other employees remained the exception before the First World War, only becoming possible after it, for example in Austria through the Arbeiterurlaubsgesetz (Law on Workers' Holidays ) of 1919. Similar developments took place in Switzerland: holidays for the civil servants of the federal administration were first subject to regulation in 1879, but only established as a legal right in 1923. In industry, holiday rights were only granted much later. Among 100 Swiss factories, for example, in 1910 only 11.9 percent gave their employees paid holidays; by 1944, this figure had risen to 87.9 percent. 45 The right to holiday enshrined in normal work contracts today is an achievement of the 20th century. In Switzerland, this right was not regulated uniformly. In different cantons, the situation developed independently, although from the 1930s collective work contracts became important; one paid week off was usual. Only after 1945 did most cantons extend their laws on holidays to the entire labour force. Germany did not pass a general law on holiday rights until 1963.

After the crisis of the First World War, the summer retreat offered a simple, healthy and economical holiday, which from the 1920s was accessible to employees and workers on low incomes. Love of the countryside and a desire for the simplicity of rural life inspired by a critical view of the city, preferably in the beauty of low mountain ranges, seem to indicate a particularly German variety of the summer retreat, which differed from trips to Scandinavian or Russian holiday cottages or dachas .  The behaviour of Germans on summer retreat created a repertoire that came to define the practice:

Anhänglichkeit an den einmal gewählten Erholungsort, Familienanschluss mit echter Sozialbeziehung zwischen dem Städter und den Landleuten, familienähnliche Beziehungen zwischen den Wirtsleuten und den Sommerfrischlern im Gasthaus; kaum vorhandenes Verdienststreben oder konkurrenzenges Denken der Gastgeber; zuvorkommend-dienendes Verhalten des Gastgebers gegenüber dem als überlegen angesehenen vornehmen Städter; im Tagesablauf viele Ausflüge; je nach finanzieller Möglichkeit war man bestrebt, ein Sommerhaus zu kaufen. 48

The presence of people on summer retreat left behind the first traces of a touristic infrastructure, for example the designation of walking trails and the construction of guest houses, bothies, forest restaurants, observation towers and recreational opportunities.

Between 1933 and 1939, the National Socialist regime in Germany brought new impulses, an increasing amount of travel and holidaying practices aimed at the masses. These developments overcame the once essentially middle-class nature of travel by creating a social or popular tourism characterised by the state organisation of holidaying and recreation. It goes without saying that tourism served the political system and the National Socialist ideology. The various stages and graduated pattern of use of the new tourism are conspicuous, providing an object lesson in the inherent potential for a totalitarian regime to exploit tourism politically. Mass tourism emerged in the Third Reich. 49 For the historian of tourism, this form of holidaying, guided from above, was characterised by its claim to democratisation on behalf of the general workforce, the Volk . Hitler wanted to grant the worker a satisfactory holiday and do everything to ensure that this holiday and the rest of his free time would provide true recuperation. "Ich wünsche das, weil ich ein nervenstarkes Volk will, denn nur allein mit einem Volk, das seine Nerven behält, kann man wahrhaft große Politik machen." 50

The National Socialists implemented this goal through the creation of a body to organise recreation – the Nationalsozialistische Gemeinschaft Kraft durch Freude ("The National Socialist Association Strength through Joy" – KdF) and a ministry Reisen, Wandern, Urlaub ("Travelling, Hiking, Holiday" – RWU), both of which were subordinate to the party. In order to avoid resistance to the social transformation, workers received at first between three and six days holiday per year. From 1937, the majority of wage-earners had from six to twelve days off per year 51 and could benefit from the new, very cheap, opportunities for holidays and travel: walking tours, train journey, cruises with accommodation and meals achieved great popularity. This is evident from record statistics that testify to an unprecedented boom in travel: the 2.3 million journeys undertaken in 1934 rose to five million in 1935, 9.6 million in 1937 and 10.3 million in 1938. 52 In the six years before the outbreak of war, 43 million journey, cruises and walking tours were sold at cheap prices that could not be competed with, for example seven days in Norway for 60  Reichsmark or 18 days in Madeira for 120  Reichsmark . 53

The Expansion of Tourism and Globalisation

The last phase embraces the developments in tourism during the post-war period up to the present. Depending on one's perspective, this is the apex 57 of tourism or the phase of practice and consolidation 58 These are justified labels for the period's combination of infrastructural construction and renovation, streams of tourists and holidaying as a common form of recreation: indeed, over the last few decades, tourism has become an important branch of the global economy and is a defining characteristic of modern industrial nations. Tourism crosses borders: spatial, temporal, social and cultural. This is its common denominator. 59 There is a consensus that the enormous boom during the post-war period was bound up with economic growth, technological progress, a high level of competition and the creation of new destinations and travelling styles. 60 The increase in recreational mobility among broad strata of society should be seen against this background. Various factors brought about this boom, including rising affluence, urbanisation, the unprecedented construction of transportation and communication networks , and the increase in leisure time as a result of shortening working hours, all of which shaped socialisation. 61

However, this growth in tourism after the war only came slowly and in Germany, Austria and Switzerland remained confined to domestic destinations. In Western Germany , not until 1953 did the capacity for holiday accommodation reach pre-war levels; the considerable increases in the percentage of teenagers and adults going on holiday each year only took place during and after the 1960s: rising from 28 percent (1962) to 58 percent (1980), over 65 percent (1987) and 70.8 percent – meaning the Western German figures were average in comparison to other European countries. 62 Involved in this were, alongside trade union bodies, the holiday organisations and travel agencies, as well as the large travel companies, which acquired increasing importance. Subsidised "social tourism" for families and young people, which helped those parts of the population on low incomes to go on holiday, was a noticeable trend in several countries. Social policies, holiday funds, subsidies, charities and entire holiday camps and villages for workers and low-income employees can be found in France, 63 Austria, Germany 64 and, above all, in Switzlerand. 65

The apex of European tourism began in the 1960s: in response to the economic situation and strategic innovations in the market economy, commercial tour operators and travel companies transformed the nature of competition through increasingly cheaper offers, propelling it in the direction of mass tourism, introducing new destinations and modes of holidaying. Here, tourism produced its own structures and secondary systems. 66 Many travel agencies and tourist organisations were set up, while department stores also offered package holidays, for example Neckermann in Germany from 1963 und Jelmoli in Switzerland from 1972. The replacement of bus and rail travel with journeys by car and caravan, and later by air, provided a powerful stimulus. Charter tourism occupied a flourishing market sector and established itself with cheap offers for foreign holidays. Foreign tourism first affected neighbouring countries and then more distant destinations – Austria and Switzerland were popular among German holidaymakers, but Italy and Spain later gained increasing prominence: From about 1970, journeys abroad clearly represented the majority; this trend towards foreign holidays has recently grown even stronger. 67 In general, the number of teenagers and adults taking foreign holidays rose more than threefold over the 40 years before 1991 – from nine to 32 million.

However, the increase in touristic traffic hints at another social and structural expansion, the impact of which has been gaining strength since the 1990s. Holidays and travel are becoming accessible to ever broader strata of the population; not only "traditional" holidaymakers – i.e. state employees, white-collar workers, graduates and urban workers – have benefited. The rural population and social groups defined by age and gender (women, singles, pensioners) have taken advantage of tourism, 69 something which is evident from the specific products tailored to their various demands. This picks up on a central characteristic of modern tourism – diversification and specialisation as a result of globalisation . This corresponds to tourism's apparently unbridled potential, regardless of the facts that little structural development has taken past over the last decade and that touristic tastes and behaviour have been reasonably stable since the Second World War, albeit with some changes in emphasis. 70

Bibliography

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• ^ UNWTO World Tourism Barometer June 2008, Vol. 6., NO. 2, June 2008; online figures: http://www.bpb.de/nachschlagen/zahlen-und-fakten/globalisierung/52511/tourismus .
• ^ Krippendorf et al., Freizeit 1987, p. 39.
• ^ Bieger, Tourismuslehre 2006.
• ^ Hennig, Reiselust 1997; Löfgren, On Holiday 1999 and Lauterbach, Tourismus 2006.
• ^ Keitz, Reisen 1997.
• ^ Spode, "Reif für die Insel" 1995.
• ^ Knoll, Kulturgeschichte des Reisens 2006.
• ^ Spode, Historische Tourismusforschung 1993, p. 3f. and 27f.
• ^ Hachtmann, Tourismus-Geschichte 2007, p. 27.
• ^ Ludwig, Der neue Tourismus 1990, p. 30.
• ^ Ibid., p. 30f.
• ^ "The subjective experience of travel is a distinguishing feature of the beginnings of the modern age: by travelling, one's self experienced its liberation" [translated by C.G.]. Opaschowski, Tourismus 1996, p. 65.
• ^ Ibid., p. 69.
• ^ Brilli, Reisen eine Kunst 1997.
• ^ Opaschowski, Tourismus 1996, p. 67f.
• ^ Leibetseder, Die Kavalierstour 2004.
• ^ "Lessons in dance, riding and fencing, the acquisition and improvement of languages, the attendance of university courses, the establishment of social and economic contacts, practice in socially appropriate conduct and cultivated behaviour – all these were part of the nobles' programme during the tour" [translated by C.G]. Prahl / Steinecke, Millionen-Urlaub 1979, p. 137f.
• ^ "They [the nobles] travelled through Italy conscious of their own political strength and organisational efficiency, of their economic success and technological superiority. At the same time, they admired Italy's cultural and artistic achievements and its sublime and cultivated etiquette. The journey to Italy was a glance back at a culture which was seen as sophisticated and whose fundamental values still guided them. The new world owed the old one world its respect – a basic pattern of tourism that can also be found in Roman trips to Greece or American journeys to Europe" [translated by C.G.]. Ibid., p. 139.
• ^ Freyer, Tourismus 1990, p. 19 and Spode, Historische Tourismusforschung 1993, p. 4.
• ^ Prahl / Steinecke, Millionen-Urlaub 1979, p. 26f.
• ^ Spode, Historische Tourismusforschung 1993, p. 4–6.
• ^ Freyer, Tourismus 1990, p. 19.
• ^ Spatt, Fremdenverkehrslehre 1975, p. 44.
• ^ Schivelbusch, Eisenbahnreise 1989.
• ^ Hachtmann, Tourismus-Geschichte 2007, p. 71f.
• ^ Prein, Bürgerliches Reisen 2003.
• ^ "als eine Form auch der bürgerlichen Selbsttherapie, der Herauslösung des bürgerlichen Selbst aus seinem Schattendasein in der alten aristokratischen Welt". Kaschuba, Erkundung der Moderne 1991, pp. 35, 43.
• ^ Ibid., p. 31f.
• ^ Brenner, Reisebericht 1990.
• ^ Meiners, Christoph: Briefe über die Schweiz, Berlin 1784–1790, vol. 1–4.
• ^ Heidegger, Heinrich: Handbuch für Reisende durch die Schweitz, Zürich 1787.
• ^ Lauterbach, Baedeker 1989 and Lauterbach, Einwohner 1992.
• ^ Prahl / Steinecke, Millionen-Urlaub 1979, p. 158f.
• ^ Gorsemann, Bildungsgut 1995.
• ^ Knebel, Strukturwandlungen 1960, p. 22ff.
• ^ Hachtmann, Tourismus-Geschichte 2007, p. 69.
• ^ "One of the features of our time is mass travel. Once, only the privileged travelled; now everyone does…. The whole world travels…. Modern man, placed under greater strain as he is, also requires more relaxation" [translated by C.G.]. Quoted in Prahl / Steinecke, Millionen-Urlaub 1979, p. 151.
• ^ "mountaineering, which was depicted as a conquest, represented nothing less than the continuation of imperial politics by other means, first in the western… then the eastern Alps, and later increasingly in the mountainous regions beyond Europe, above all in Asia" [translated by C.G]. Lauterbach, "Als der Berg die Viktorianer rief" 2005, p. 57.
• ^ Prahl / Steinecke, Millionen-Urlaub 1979, p. 49f.
• ^ Kramer, Der sanfte Tourismus 1983.
• ^ Freyer, Tourismus 1990, p. 24f.
• ^ Spode, Historische Tourismusforschung 1993, p. 4f.
• ^ Hachtmann, Tourimus-Geschichte 2007, p. 84.
• ^ Spode, Historische Tourismusforschung 1993, p. 5.
• ^ Handbuch der schweizerischen Volkswirtschaft 1955, vol. I, p. 442.
• ^ "as a series of day trips extended over several weeks, in the course of which the flat in the town was exchanged for a simple guesthouse or private room in the countryside, often only a few hours away by train from the [family's] place of residence. It catered for the recuperation of the family, above all the children, and not participation in expensive leisure pursuits or social occasions" [translated by C.G]. Knebel, Strukturwandlungen 1960, p. 39.
• ^ Hachtmann, Historische Tourismusforschung 2007, p. 95f.
• ^ "Attachment to the chosen holiday resort; family ties and real social relationships between those from the city and the village; family-like relationships between the landlords and summer visitors in the hostel; the lack of money-making instincts or a competitive attitude among the hoteliers; the almost obsequious behaviour of the hotelier towards the city dwellers, who were seen as superior; a daily programme structured around several excursions; depending on financial means, the desire to buy a summer house" [translated by C.G.]. G. Stadler, zitiert nach Prahl / Steinecke, Millionen-Urlaub 1979, p. 159.
• ^ Spode, "Der deutsche Arbeiter reist" 1982.
• ^ "I want this because I want a Volk with strong nerves, for only with a Volk that can keep its nerve can one conduct politics on a grand scale" [translated by C.G.]. Quoted in Prahl / Steinecke, Millionen-Urlaub 1979, p. 160.
• ^ Spode, "Der deutsche Arbeiter reist" 1982, p. 290f.
• ^ Freyer, Tourismus 1990, p. 25.
• ^ Opaschowski, Tourismus 1996, p. 87.
• ^ Keitz, Reisen 1997, p. 239f.
• ^ Hachtmann, Tourismus-Geschichte 2007, p. 127.
• ^ Spode, NS-Gemeinschaft 1991, p. 90.
• ^ Spode, Historische Tourismusforschung 1993, p. 7.
• ^ Bausinger, Grenzenlos 1991, p. 344f.
• ^ Freyer, Tourismus 1990, p. 26f.
• ^ Krippendorf et al., Freizeit 1987, p. 5f.
• ^ Hachtmann, Tourismus-Geschichte 2007, p. 155.
• ^ Lanquar / Raynouard, Le tourisme 1978.
• ^ Keitz, Reisen 1997, p. 272f.
• ^ [Schweizer Reisekasse], Sozialtourismus 1965 and Schumacher, Ferien 2002.
• ^ Knebel, Strukturwandlungen 1960, p. 45f.
• ^ Wohlmann, Entwicklung des Tourismus 1993, p. 12f.
• ^ Prahl / Steinecke, Millionen-Geschichte 1979, p. 187.
• ^ Prahl, Entwicklungsstadien 1991, p. 106.
• ^ Hlavin-Schulze, "Man reist ja nicht, um anzukommen" 1998, p. 71f.
• ^ Wöhler, Erlebniswelten 2005.
• ^ Gyr, Entgrenzung 1999, p. 61f.

Übersetzt von: Translated by: Christopher Gilley Fachherausgeber: Editor: Ruth-Elisabeth Mohrmann Redaktion: Copy Editor: Jennifer Willenberg

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Zitierempfehlung Citation

Gyr, Ueli : The History of Tourism: Structures on the Path to Modernity , in: Europäische Geschichte Online (EGO), hg. vom Leibniz- Institut für Europäische Geschichte (IEG), Mainz European History Online (EGO), published by the Leibniz Institute of European History (IEG), Mainz 2010-12-03 . URL: https://www.ieg-ego.eu/ gyru-2010 - en URN: urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921246 [JJJJ-MM-TT] [YYYY-MM-DD] .

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• ISSN 2192-7405

A short history of modern travel

The world has changed considerably to accommodate the growing demand for global tourism. But what is the history of modern travel?

The vast expanse of options available to the modern traveller have made the world smaller in the last century. Interconnectivity has entered its prime, with planes, trains and intelligent road networks enabling worldwide travellers to reach destinations unknown in a matter of hours.

Air travel has undoubtedly changed the world. Assuming the widespread belief that da Vinci invented the helicopter as early as the 1500s is based on concept alone, it was 400 years later, in 1903, that the Wright brothers launched their first powered aircraft.

Around this time, Blackpool beach holidays were the height of fashion in the UK, and the French Riviera was booming across the Channel - and south a bit, to the considerably warmer waters of the Mediterranean. Domestic holidays were exotic enough for most, something to work the year towards, scrupulously saved for by the working class and committed to memory in photographs by the uppers.

Usually, the journey was done by train. Preceding the aeroplane by almost a century, the train became an icon of the Western Industrial Era, the immortalised slogan: it’s quicker by rail. While the railway did indeed outstrip horses, carriages and cars, the invention of the aeroplane brought a whole new dynamic to accessibility.

Suddenly, the rest of the world was a matter of hours away. In January 1914, the first commercial flight began operations between St Petersburg and Tampa, Florida. The 34 kilometre route across Tampa Bay took approximately 23 minutes - relatively slow progress when compared to the record breaking, sub-five hour London to New York flight in early 2020. However, pitted against its contemporary alternatives - at least four hours by rail and two hours by steamship - suddenly the $5 dollar fee (approximately $100 dollar equivalent today) bought this new generation of travellers both time and game-changing experience.

Cue the First World War, which somewhat hindered the progress of aviation travel. While in some ways the war actually fuelled the development of different types of aircraft, commercial flights only really took off in the 1920s. 1929 saw the largest plane built at the time carry 169 people - the Dornier Do X. This record was not broken for an additional 20 years.

• Meet the first black woman to travel to every country in the world

By the 1980s, we had entered the Digital Age. The revolutionary progress we had seen from the '20s onwards in aviation - in terms of speed, size and distance records - was slowing down. Flights were becoming a mainstream mode of transport.

Meanwhile on the ground, motorways were developing, towns and cities across most countries were becoming better connected on faster and smoother roads. It was an age where horsepower became more closely associated with race cars than its derivations as a measure of the speed of horse-based transport.

We’re now in an era where you can get from London to Paris in a couple of hours by train. The French TGV travels up to 300km per hour. The Shanghai Maglev isn’t far behind, nor the Frecciarossa, among others. In Concord’s heyday, it could zoom passengers from London to New York in under three hours. Modern air travel means €1 flight sales to practically anywhere, and budget airlines that can take you across the globe for as little as €50.

But of course, this sense of limitless travel isn’t without its limitations. The environmental impact of travel has started to take its toll. This week on Euronews Travel, we’re taking a look at all things sustainable travel, in partnership with our sustainability vertical www.euronews.com/living . Head over to the site, or their social platforms @euronewsliving to find out more.

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The Oxford Handbook of Tourism History

Eric G. E. Zuelow is Professor of History at the University of New England in Biddeford, Maine. He is author of A History of Modern Tourism (2015) and Making Ireland Irish: Tourism and National Identity since the Irish Civil War (2009), editor of Touring Beyond the Nation: A Transnational Approach to European Tourism History (2011), and editor of the Journal of Tourism History.

Kevin J. James is Professor of History at the University of Guelph in Canada, where he holds the Scottish Studies Foundation Chair and serves as Director of the Centre for Scottish Studies. His research programs have explored the history of the hotel visitors' book, hotels in wartime, and the history of country house hotels.

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A History of Modern Tourism

Tourism is one of the largest industries in the world. Yet leisure travel is not just economically important. This pastime plays a vital role in defining who we are by helping to place us in space and time. In so doing, it has aesthetic, medical, political, cultural, and social implications. It was not always so. Tourism as we know it is a surprisingly modern thing, both a product of modernity and a force helping to shape it. A History of Modern Tourism is the first book to track the origins and evolution of this pursuit from earliest times to the present. From a new understanding of aesthetics to scientific change, from the invention of steam power to the creation of aircraft, from an elite form of education to family car trips to see national “shrines,” this book offers a sweeping and engaging overview of a fascinating story not yet widely known. ". . . a very readable account of how tourism has developed since The Grand Tour of the 18th century. It looks at movers and shakers in the tourism sector - from Thomas Cook and George Pullman to Billy Butlin, Freddie Laker and even Adolf Hitler - and at how the industry has shaped globalisation and the modern world." (Adam Nebbs, South China Morning Post, 1 Nov. 2015) This book is now available in hardcover, paperback, and electronic formats. http://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-Tourism-Eric-Zuelow/dp/0230369642/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&qid=1433518027&sr=8-4&keywords=Zuelow. Readers may also be interested in the supplementary website which contains bibliographies, lists of websites, teaching materials, and more: http://ericzuelow.com/ModernTourism/About.html Publisher website: http://www.palgrave.com/page/detail/a-history-of-modern-tourism-eric-zuelow/?isb=9780230369641

Related Papers

Zuccina Bartali

Various academic disciplines have repeatedly sought to re-evaluate the significance of tourism. Globalised tourism's so-cio-economic place within the framework of the leisure and holidaying opportunities on offer today has attracted particular attention. Such accounts often leave out the fact that this also has a history. The present article aims to overcome this shortcoming: it seeks to present an overview of the important structures, processes, types and trends of tourism against the background of historical developments. It deals with early forms of travel in the classical world and the Middle Ages, as well as the precursors of modern tourism, Bildungsreisen ("educational journeys") and the middle-class culture of travel. It then examines the boom in mass tourism in the 19th century and the unique expansion of tourism in the 1960s characterised by new forms of holidaying and experience shaped by globalisation.

Allen Dieterich-Ward

CHAUVET Arnaud

The conventional view of tourism's past is dominated by the history of western cultural experience. Tourism starts with the wealthy, with images of prestigious visits to spas and seaside resorts, Grand Tours and the activities of business entrepreneurs such as Thomas Cook, before it begins to filter down the social ladder. This paper argues that more attention should be paid to tourism's past in non-western societies and cultures and to the more ordinary and routine practices of a wider cross-section of the population. It is too simplistic to portray tourism's evolution as a geographical process of diffusion from one or two core areas and a social process of downward movement from the affluent. Reasons for the prevailing image of tourism's past are suggested and several ideas are proposed for broadening research into its history.

Tourism Management

John Towner

Jorge Rodrigues Simao

JORGE R O D R I G U E S SIMAO

The history of tourism traces back to ancient civilizations, with evidence of early travels for leisure and cultural exchange dating back thousands of years. The development of modern tourism can be traced back to the Grand Tour of Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, where wealthy European nobles would travel for educational and cultural purposes. The Industrial Revolution played a significant role in the growth of mass tourism, as improvements in transportation and increased leisure time allowed for more people to travel for pleasure. The rise of global tourism in the 20th century was fueled by advancements in technology and transportation, making it easier and more affordable for people to travel to far-off destinations. The history of tourism is closely intertwined with economic development, as many countries have relied on the industry as a major source of revenue and job creation. The impact of tourism on local communities and the environment has become a major concern in recent years, as overcrowding and environmental degradation have become significant issues in popular tourist destinations.

Una McMahon-beattie

Tourism Recreation Research

David Airey

Annals of Tourism Research

Andreea Antonescu

The SAGE Handbook of Tourism Studies

Tazim Jamal

Ann Tourism Res

Nelson Graburn

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The Making of Modern Tourism

The Cultural History of the British Experience, 1600-2000

• © 2002
• Barbara Korte 0 ,
• C. Harvie ,
• R. Schneider

Univ. Freiburg Engl. Seminar, Freiburg, Germany

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• cultural history
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Barbara Korte

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Book Title : The Making of Modern Tourism

Book Subtitle : The Cultural History of the British Experience, 1600-2000

Editors : Barbara Korte, C. Harvie, R. Schneider

Publisher : Palgrave Macmillan London

eBook Packages : History (R0)

Copyright Information : Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited 2002

Hardcover ISBN : 978-0-333-97114-7 Published: 16 January 2002

Softcover ISBN : 978-1-349-66513-6 Published: 16 January 2002

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XIII, 310

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, the development of the tourist travel systems: a metropolitan economic hegemony par excellence.

The Tourist Review

ISSN : 0251-3102

Article publication date: 1 January 1973

This paper wants to illustrate a development sequence of a number of interrelated elements into a strongly tied total transport mechanism for individual travelling. The example is drawn from the geographically far‐flung mechanism which serves international tourist travel and especially the relationships, more or less rigid at different periods of the evolution, of the travel system, between travel‐generating and destination areas. The interrelationships which are depicted are in the author's mind quite similar to the economic and structural regional inter‐dependence between developed (metropolitan) and developing parts of the world. Therefore, the various complaints that have been voiced about widening gaps between the haves and have nots, on an international scale, and that are based on comparisons between national incomes etc. seem also to be applicable to the characteristics of the travel structures and systems within which the international tourist flows take place. The notions of center/periphery relationships could, however, also be seen on other geographic scale levels.

Lundgren, J.O.J. (1973), "The development of the tourist travel systems: A metropolitan economic hegemony par excellence?", The Tourist Review , Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 2-14. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb057675

Copyright © 1973, MCB UP Limited

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The leading players of Travel & Tourism globally have published a landmark joint report setting out their joint plan to help halt and reverse biodiversity loss.

Launched on Earth Day 2024, “Nature Positive Travel & Tourism in Action” is the creation of the high-level ‘Nature Positive Tourism Partnership, made up of the World Travel & Tourism Council ( WTTC ), the World Tourism Organization ( UN Tourism ) and the Sustainable Hospitality Alliance ( the Alliance ).

Developed in collaboration with specialist consultancy ANIMONDIAL, the report is the sector’s pledge to support the implementation of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), the UN’s Biodiversity Plan.

It presents more than 30 case studies of inspiring and progressive actions from around the world involving large and small businesses, national and local government agencies, civil society groups, and inter-sectoral partnerships.

By offering actionable guidance and insights, this report not only highlights the intrinsic link between biodiversity and tourism’s resilience, but also empowers businesses to become stewards of nature.

Historic partnership for nature

Julia Simpson, WTTC President & CEO , said: “This historic partnership with Travel & Tourism heavyweights is a significant step in our collective journey towards a more sustainable and responsible sector.

“This report is not merely a publication but a movement towards integrating environmental stewardship into the core of travel experiences.

“As we celebrate Earth Day, let us heed the call to nurture and protect our destinations. Our sector’s reliance on nature, coupled with our expertise in creating inspiring and memorable experiences, means we are ideally placed to be guardians of nature.”

Mr. Zurab Pololikashvili, Secretary-General of UN Tourism , said: “For years, UN Tourism has been at the forefront of integrating tourism into the broader UN biodiversity agenda, including supporting the work of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

“This pivotal new collaboration among key global players sets a robust framework for sustainable practices that not only drive significant impact but also exemplify the power of united efforts in conserving biodiversity.

“This report is a testimony to what we can achieve together for nature’s preservation, inspiring a global movement towards more sustainable and resilient tourism.”

Glenn Mandziuk, Sustainable Hotel Alliance CEO , said: “This report is a milestone for Travel and Tourism, representing our commitment as an industry to protect and conserve nature. 

“The Alliance is proud to contribute to and collaborate on this insightful and action-orientated report which will bring tangible change to destinations around the world, supporting biodiversity. Nature underpins our society, economies and indeed our very existence. 

“The hospitality industry is today a leader amongst industries in its Nature Positive approach and this report signifies how much our industry understands the true value of nature.”  

Expert-led coalition

Recognising that the sector has a critical role to play in protecting and conserving biodiversity, the Nature Positive Tourism approach is designed to be a touchstone for actionable change. It focuses on equipping the sector with the tools and insights needed to nurture and protect destinations upon which it depends.

The commitment of the Partnership to work towards “net positive for nature” draws on extensive consultation with experts from business, government, academia and civil society, including the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA).

The report, which follows the 2022 WTTC report “Nature Positive Travel & Tourism”, includes practical frameworks and real-world examples that encourage both travel providers and travellers to embark on journeys that contribute to the conservation of our natural treasures.

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